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OUR REPUBLIC 

A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 
FOR GRAMMAR GRADES 



BY 

FRANKLIN L. RILEY 

PliOFKSSOli OF III.STOUY, UNIVERSITY OF MISSISSIPPI 

J. A. C. CHANDLER 

SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, RICHMOND, VIRGINIA 

J. G. DE ROULHAC HAMILTON 

PROFESSOR OF HISTORY, UNIVERSITY OF NORTH CAROLINA 



m 



RICHMOND, VIRGrlNIA 

RILEY AND CHANDLER 

19 10 






. - Copyright, 1910, by 
RILEY AND CHANDLER 



(g)ClA27l428 



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PREFACE 



It may be asked at the outset, In what does this book 
differ from the many text-books of American history that 
have already been offered to the schools ? 

It is presumably the object of every author of such a 
book to show properly the trend of our country's devel- 
opment — how colonies grew into States, and they in turn 
into a united nation; to show, furthermore, how the 
people have lived, how the methods of making a liveli- 
hood have been changed by discoveries and inventions, 
producing new social conditions; and to set forth, in the 
course of such narrative, the acts of heroism and states- 
manship that are conspicuous in our national biography. 
Presumably, too, school histories have been written to 
create an interest in the nation and the duties of citizen- 
ship — to foster patriotism and a sense of civic duty; to 
fix standards of miorality by a comparison of human 
deeds; and, lastly, to stimulate love of the study itself. 

These common ideals of the historian and the teacher 
are fundamental in the present book. But in offering to 
the schools of the United States a new book on American 
history, the authors have considered also certain other 
conditions to be met. 

The children who enter the grammar grades have usu- 
ally no knowledge of history outside of tales of heroism 
and adventure, and biographical sketches. They have 
little idea of the logical sequence of events. Therefore 
the study of history in these grades should lead them 
gradually from their former standpoint to a broader and 
more adult view of historical occurrences. In this book 
the subject is presented very simply at the outset, with 
abundance of illustration, and enough of what may be 



vi PREFACE 

called the romantic element in history to sustain interest 
and stimulate the imagination; but as the child who 
studies the War of Secession, will be older by nearly two 
years than at the beginning of his study of the colonial 
period, the narrative is presented with due considera- 
tion of the pupil's mental growth in those two years. Yet 
nowhere is the pupil's ability overestimated. This book 
is, therefore, intended as a text for the sixth and seventh 
or seventh and eighth years of the elementary school. 

Furthermore, children of these grades have but little 
idea of historical accuracy. A tale second-hand is quite as 
acceptable to them as a quotation from original sources. 
Any quickening of the historical perception in this direc- 
tion has, obviously, a far-reaching moral bearing; and the 
authors have, both by quotations in the text, and by fac- 
simile reproductions among the illustrations, tried to foster 
a desire for accurate information from original sources. 

All the children of our country need to be trained to 
impartial observation and judgment. It is the broad 
basis of efficient citizenship. With this in mind, the 
authors have endeavored to give here a well balanced, 
accurate, and impartial account of the great period of 
sectional disputes. The children of the present must 
learn to view without prejudice this era of our history, 
reverencing and respecting whatever was nobly done and 
condemning the ignoble and the harsh. 

The authors have endeavored to present difficult prob- 
lems concisely and simply, omitting what is beyond the 
understanding of children. They have j^rovided brief 
biographical sketches of many leading Americans; also 
some questions and exercises at the close of the text, to 
stimulate both memory and reasoning; and have listed 
a simple reference library for children, which can be had 
at little cost. 

The Authors. 



HISTORICAL LIBRARY LISTS 
FOR GRAMMAR GRADES 

(Reference to these books will be found on page 472 and following.) 

I. — A Five Dollar Reference Library. 

Southworth: Builders of Our Country, Book I. D. Appleton & 

Co., New York. 60 cents. 
Southworth: Builders of Our Country, Book II. D. Appleton & 

Co., New York. 60 cents. 
McMurry: Pioneers of Land and Sea. The Macmillan Co., New 

York. 40 cents. 
Hart: Colonial Children. The Macmillan Co., New York. 40 

cents. 
Guerber: Story of the Thirteen Colonies. American Book Co., 

New York. 65 cents. 
Fiske: The War of Independence. Houghton Mifflin Co., New 

York. 40 cents. 
McCarthy: Soldier Life in the Army of Northern Virginia. B. F. 

Johnson Publishing Co., Richmond, Va. 50 cents. 
Hall: Half Hours in Southern History. B. F. Johnson Publishing 

Co., Richmond, Va. 75 cents. 
Williamson: Life of General Robert E. Lee. B. F. Johnson Pub- 
lishing Co., Richmond, Va. 25 cents. 
Williamson: Life of General Stonewall Jackson. B. F. Johnson 

Publishing Co., Richmond, Va. 30 cents. 

II. — A Ten-Dollar Reference Library. 

Add to the list given above, the following books: 
Gordy: American Leaders and Heroes. Charles Scribner's Sons, 

New York. 60 cents. 
Blaisdell and Ball: Hero Stories from American History. Ginn 

& Co., New York. 50 cents. 
Chandler and Chitwood: Makers of American History. Silver, 

Burdett & Co., New York. 60 cents. 
Mowry: American Inventions and Inventors. Silver, Burdett & 

Co., New York. 65 cents. 



viii OUR REPUBLIC 

Johonnot: Stories of Our Country. American Book Co., New 

York. 40 cents. 
White: The Making of South Carolina. Silver, Burdett & Co., 

New York. 60 cents. 
Connor: Story of the Old North State. J. B. Lippincott Co., 

Philadelphia, Pa. 35 cents. 
Massey and Wood: The Story of Georgia. D. C. Heath & Co., 

New York. 35 cents. 
Littlejohn: Texas History Stories. B. F. Johnson Publishing Co., 

Richmond, Va. 50 cents. 
Karns: Tennessee History Stories. B. F. Johnson Publishing Co., 

Richmond, Va. 50 cents. 



CONTENTS 



I. PERIOD OF EXPLORATION 

CHAPTER 

I. European Countries in 1492 

II. Geographical Knowledge in 1192 . 

III. The Plan of Columbus 

IV. The Voyages op Columbus 
V. The Unknown Lands a New World 

VI. Other Spanish Explorations 
VII. French and Dittch Explorations . 

1. French Explorations 

2. Dutch Explorations 
VIII. English Explorations . 

IX. The American Indian . 



1 
7 
11 
16 
21 
25 
31 
31 
34 
35 
42 



11. SETTLEMENT OF THE THIRTEEN 
ORIGINAL COLONIES 



X. 

XI. 

XII. 

XIII. 

XIV. 

XV. 

XVI. 

XVII. 



XVIII. 

XIX. 

XX. 

XXI. 



The Settlement of Virginia 49 

The Struggles of the Jamestown Colony . . 53 

The Growth of Virginia 58 

Virginia under Charles I and Cromwell . . 62 

The Liberty-Loving Virginians .... 64 

The Plymouth Colony 6? 

The Massachusetts Bay Colony .... 71 

The Expansion of New England .... 75 

1. Rhode Island 75 

2. Connecticut 77 

3. The New Haven Colony 80 

4. New Hampshire and Maine 81 

The United Colonies of New England . . 81 

New England under Charles II and James II 85 

New England under William and Mary . . 88 

The Settlement of Maryland .... 91 

ix 



CONTENTS 



CHAPTER 

XXII. 

XXIII. 
XXIV. 



XXV. 

XXVI. 

XXVII. 

XXVIII. 

XXIX. 



Government and Progress of Maryland, 1649- 

1700 

The Beginnings of the Carolinas 
North Carolina and South Caroli 

1. North Carolina 

2. South Carohna 

Georgia 

New York a Dutch Colony 
New York an English Colony 
The Colony of New Jersey 
Pennsylvania and Delaware 

1. Pennsylvania . 

2. Delaware .... 



III. INTERCOLONIAL WARS 

XXX. French Settlements in America .... 

XXXI. King William's, Queen Anne's, and King George's 

- Wars 

XXXII. Struggle over Western Lands 

XXXIII. The French Driven out of North A.merica 

XXXIV. The Colonists and Their Homes in 17H8 
XXXV. Various Phases of Colonial Life . 



IV. PERIOD OF REVOLUTION 

XXXVI. Dissatisfaction with England's Policy 

XXXVII. The Stamp Act and the Townshend Acts . 

XXXVIII. England Insists on the Right of Tax.\tigx 

XXXIX. Opening of Revolutionary War, 1776 

XL. The Organization of an Army, 1775 

XLI. War in the South, 1776 

XLII. Washington's Campaigns, 1776 — The Declara 

TioN OF Independence . 

XLIII. Events of the Year 1777 . 

XLIV. The War North and South in 1778 

XLV. The Winning of the W^est 

XLVI. Events of the Year 1779 . 

XLVII. Events of the Year 1780 . 

XLVIII. The War in the Ye.\r 1781 

XLIX. Peace with England .... 



CONTENTS 



X] 



V. CRITICAL PERIOD 

CHAPTER PAGE 

L. First Constitution of the United States . . 206 
LI. Dissatisfaction with the Articles of Confed- 
eration 209 

LIT. Making a New Federal Government . . .211 
LUX. Social Conditions in 1789 215 



VI. MAKING OF THE REPUBLIC 

LIV. Organization of the New Government . 221 

Washington's First Administration, 1789-93. 
LV. Foreign and Domestic Relations .... 227 
Washington's Second Administration, 1793-97. 

LVI. End of Federalist Rule 231 

John Adams's Administration, 1797-1801. 
LVII. Triumph of Republican Principles 237 

Jefferson's First" Administration, 1801-05). 
LVIII. Struggle for Commercial Rights .... 241 
Jefferson's Second Administration, 1805-09. 

lilX. England Forces War 245 

Madison's Administration, 1809-12. 
LX. First and Second Years of the War of 1812 . 249 

Madison's Administration, 1812-13 
LXI. Third Year of the War of 1812 .... 254 

Madison's Administration, 1814. 
LXII. The American Republic Respected Abroad 256 

End of Madison's Administration, 1814-17 
LXIII. New Problems at Home and Abroad . 258 

Monroe's Administration, 1817-25. 

LXIV. The United States in 1820 263 

LXV. Formation of New Parties 269 

John Quincy Adams's Administration, 1825-29. 
LXVI. Triumph of the New Democracy .... 272 
Jackson's First Athiiinistration, 1829-33. 

LXVII. Nullification and the Bank 277 

Jackson's Second Administration, 1833-37. 
Van Buren's Administration, 1837-41. 
LXVm. Development of the Country, 1820-40. . . 284 
LXIX. Failure of the Whig Program .... 294 
Harrison's and Tyler's Administration, 1841-45. 



XI] 



CONTENTS 



CHAPTER PAGE 

LXX. War with Mexico and Its Results . . . 299 

First Years of Polk's Administration, 1845-48. 
LXXI. Westward Expansion and Its Problems . . 305 
End of Polk's Administration, 1848-49. 

LXXII. The California Compromise 307 

Taylor's Administration, 1849-50. 
LXXIII. Failure of the Compromise of 1850 . . .312 

Fillmore's Administration, 1850-53. 
LXXIV. Efforts to Acquire New Territory for Slavery 315 
Pierce's Administration, 1853-57. 
LXXV. Acute Stage' of the Slavery Controversy . 319 
Buchanan's Administration, 1857-61 
LXXVT. Progress of the Country, 1840-60 . . .323 




VII. WAR OF SECESSION 

LXXVII. The Election of 18G0 .... 

LXXVIII. The Beginnings of Secjission . . , 

LXXIX. Grounds for Secession 

LXXX. The Formation of the Confederacy 

LXXXI. The South Tries to Prevent War 

LXXXII. The Beginning of the Conflict 

LXXXIII. The Strength of the Two Nations 

LXXXIV. The War in 1861 

LXXXV. War on the Sea 

LXXXVI. The War in 1862 — Advance on Richmond 

LXXXVII. The War in 1862 — Campaigns in Maryland and 

Northern Virginia 

LXXXVIII. The War in 1862 — Campaigns in Kentucky and 

Tennessee 

LXXXIX. The War in 1862— Campaigns in Mississippi and 

Tennessee 

XC. Political and Economic Conditions in 1862 

XCI. The War in 1863 — Campaigns in the West 

XCII. The War in 1863 — Campaigns in Virginia and 

Pennsylvania 

XCIII. The War in 1864 — Campaigns in the Lower South 

XCIV. The W^ar in 1864 — Campaigns in Virginia 

XCV. Lincoln Reelected — Prisoners of War 

XCVI. The War in 1865 — The Confederacy Overcome 

XCVII. Some Facts about the War 

XCVIII. Sacrifices and Makeshifts of the War 



330 
333 
335 
338 
342 
345 
348 
350 
353 
359 

363 

366 

369 
373 
378 

382 
386 
390 
393 
395 
400 
403 



CONTENTS xiii 

VIII. PERIOD OF NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT 

CHAPTER PAGE 

XCIX. The Pkoblem of Reconstruction 407 

C. Congressional Reconstruction 412 

Johnson's Adniinistration, 1865-69. 

CI. Foreign and Domestic Affairs 416 

Johnson's A(hninistrution, 1865-69. 
CII. Congressional Reconstruction a Failure . . . 418 
Grant's First Administration, 1860-73. 
cm. A Period of Distress and Corruption .... 423 
Grant's Second Administration, 1873-77. 

CIV. Sectional Feeling Begins to Die 429 

Hayes's Administration, 1877-81 ; Garfield's and Arthur's 
Administration, 1881-85. 
CV. Democratic Triumphs and Defeats .... 435 

Cleveland's First Administration, 1885-89; Harrison's 
Administration, 1889-93. 
(■VI. Democrats in Control of the Government . . . 441 
Cleveland's Second Administration, 1893-97. 

CVII. The War with Spain 445 

McKinley's First Administration, 1897-1901. 

CVIII. Fighting in American Waters 450 

McKinley's First Administration, 1897-1901. 
CIX. The Problems of Imperialism and the Panama Canal . 454 
McKinley's First Administration, 1897-1901; McKinley's 
and Roosevelt's Administration, 1901-05. 

ex. Recent Events 460 

Roosevelt's Administration, 1905-09; Taft's Administra- 
tion, 1909. 
CXI. Progress of the Country, 1865-1910 . . . .463 

Questions and Exercises 473 

Appendices: 

I. Declaration of Independence 513 

II. Constitution of the United States 517 

III. Table of Presidents and Vice Presidents of the United States . 530 

IV. Table of the growth of the United States 531 

Pronouncing Index 533 



LIST OF MAPS 



Trade Routes to the East in the Fifteenth Century 

The Part of the World Known to Europeans before 1492 . 

ToscanelU's Map 

Early Voyages Across the Atlantic 

The Circumnavigation of the Globe l)y Magellan and Drake 
Location of the Principal Indian Tribes of Central North America 
The Division of Virginia Between the London and Plymouth Com 

panics 

The Region of Jamestown and Roanoke 

The Colonies of New England . 

The Maryland Grant and Settlements 

The Grants of the Carolinas 

The Development of Georgia . 

The Middle Colonies .... 

Forts and Settlements Established by the French Before the 

of the Eighteenth Century 

Ohio Valley Region 

European Possessions in North America in 1755 and in 

colored, 

The Campaign around Boston 

The Campaigns around New York and Philadelphia . 

Burgoyne's Campaign 

The Pioneer Route to the West and the P'rontier Settlements . 
Marches and C'oimtermarches of the Forces in the South, 1780-81 
The United States with Her Western Territory at the Close of the 

Revolutionary War, colored .... 

The United States in 1800 

The Louisiana Purchase, colored .... 

The Routes of Lewis and Clark, and Pike 

The Northern Frontier During the War of 1812 . 

The Campaign around Washington 

The Territory Affected by the Missouri Compromise 

The Disputed Boundary of the Oregon Country . 

The Disputed Boundary of Texas .... 



Close 



1763, 
facing 



facing 
facing 



LIST OF MAPS XV 

PAGE 

Marches of the American Army in the Mexican War .... 303 

Territory Acquired from Mexico by the Treaty of 1848 . 304 
Changes in Free and Slave Territbry from 1820 to 1850, colored, 

facing 308 
Territory Acquired by the United States from 1789 to 1853, colored, 

facing 315 
The Division of the Country in Regard to Slavery after the Passage 

of the Kansas-Nebraska Bill 318 

The Electoral Vote of 1860 331 

The Union and the Confederate States in 1861, colored . facing 341 

The Harbor of Charleston in 1861 345 

Campaign in Virginia in 1861 350 

The Peninsula Campaign 359 

Forts and Battlegrounds of the Western Campaigns .... 367 

The Vicksburg Campaign 378 

The Campaign near Chattanooga 381 

From Chancellorsville to Gettysburg 384 

Sherman's March to the Sea 388 

Virginia Campaign of 1864-65 391 

Limits of Confederate Occupation from 1861 to 1865, colored, facing 399 

The Electoral Vote in 1876 428 

The Hawaiian Islands 443 

The Philippine Islands 448 

The War in the West Indies — The Pursuit of C'ervera's Fleet . . 451 

The Panama Canal Zone and Route of the Canal .... 456 

Alaska and the Klondike 457 

How the Centers of Population and Manufacture Have Been Mov- 
ing Westward 464 

The United States and Its Territorial Possessions, colored, facing 464 



OUR REPUBLIC 

I. PERIOD OF EXPLORATION 
CHAPTER I 

EUROPEAN COUNTRIES IN 1492 

Civilized countries in 1492. — At the close of the fif- 
teenth century, the known world was very different from 
what it is to-day. Its population was probably not over 
two hundred millions; the world that we know^ to-day 
has probably more than two thousand millions. At that 
time the cities were small, and the mode of living was 
crude. All the modern conveniences of home and busi- 
ness and travel were unknown. ^^ — 

The centers of civilization were the countries of Europe 
west of Russia. With a few exceptions, the governments 
of these were poorly conducted. The people had nothing 
to do with the making of the laws or the selection of the 
rulers. To-day we believe that the masses of the people 
should have a voice in governing themselves, but four 
hundred years ago there was no such view of the rights 
of man. 

Germany. — Among the chief civilized nations was Ger- 
many. It was called an empire, and the ruler of it was 
spoken of as emperor. It was not, however, one country, 
but many little countries and free cities. In the free 

1 



2 OUR REPUBLIC 

cities the people had some voice in the management of 
affairs, but usually the city governments were controlled 
by the wealthy. In the small kingdoms of Germany, the 
kings Avere the sole rulers, making all laws and often 
putting men to death at will. The German emperor was 




A German Landscape of the Middle Ages 

Castles of powerful lords control the peasant villages below. — After a 

drawing by Hirschvogel. 

not himself a powerful ruler ; for the small kingdoms and 
the free cities did not submit without resistance to his 
rule. When the emperor tried to control them, there 
were frequent civil wars, causing great loss of life and 
property. Because of its disorganized condition, Ger- 
manj' had nothing to do with the discoveries in the 
western world. 

France. — To the west of Germany lay France, which 
not many years before 1492 had been just as disorganized 
as Germany. But the many dukes and lords had been 
conquered, and France was now fairly well united under 



EUROPEAN COUNTRIES IN 1492 3 

one king, Charles VIII. He made the laws and, through 
his judges, decided all cases. With the exception of the 
middle class in some of the cities, the m.asses of the people 
had little opportunity for advancement in culture or 
wealth. The great bulk of the land was owned by the 
king, the nobles, and the Church. The common people 
were only tenants, and in many instances almost slaves. 

Italy. — Once the entire peninsula of Italy had been 
under the control of Rome; but with the breaking up of 
the empire over which the city of Rome held sway, Italy 
became greatly divided. By 1492 it was in even greater 



jm'r^kc ^^::^'^^^ 




Entkanck to the Port of Venice in the Iifteenth Centuky 

III the foreground, merchant vessels at the wharves; shipbuilders completing a 
man-of-war. — After a fragment of the Civitas Veneciarum of Breydenbach. 



I confusion than Germany ; for there was no central gov- 
ernment, and strife among the small states was an 
everyday occurrence. Several of the ItaUan states were 
regarded as part of the German Empire. As a rule, the 
larger Italian cities were free states. Noteworthy in his- 



OUR REPUBLIC 



tory were such city-states as Venice, Genoa, Florence, 
and Pisa. They were the most cultured and refined 
cities of Europe. The masses of the people in some of 
the city-states of Italy had no small part in their own 
government — almost as much, in fact, as the residents of 
one of our large American cities. Much of the trade of 
Europe, at this time not very large, was in the hands 
of these Itahan cities. 

England. — Of all the European countries, England was 
probably the best governed. It had just emerged from 
a long and bloody war, by which 
a strong king, Henry VII, had 
acquired the throne. The lords 
had been subdued, and the king 
was encouraging the middle class 
to develop industries and trade 
in their towns and villages. Ire- 
land was a possession of England, 
though many of the native Irish 
rulers refused to be governed by 
the King of England. Scotland 
was still an independent kingdom, 
but it had little influence in shap- 
ing the history of Europe. 

Spain. — Spain had just become a united kingdom. 
By the close of 1492 it was possibly the greatest power 
in Europe, though but a few years before the country had 
been composed of a number of independent states. By 
the marriage of Ferdinand and Isabella, the chief states, 
Aragon and Castile, had been united. In 1492, after a 
bloody war, the Moorish state of Granada in southern 
Spain had been conquered. Thus the whole country had 




Henry VII of England 

After the portrait at 

Kensington. 



EUROPEAN COUNTRIES IN 1492 




been made into a strong state, which at once began to 
shape the course of history. There was much wealth in 
the land, due in great measure to 
the skill of the Jews and the Mo- 
hammedans. 

Portugal. — Portugal was an in- 
dependent kingdom under King 
John. This monarch was one of 
the most progressive in Europe. 
Being a wise man, he tried to build 
up his little kingdom by establish- 
ing trade with all parts of the 
world. Thus Portugal had the 
same idea as the Italian city-states 
and modern England. 

Turkey. — During the whole of 
the fifteenth centurj^ an Asiatic 
people, the Turks, were making conquests in eastern 
Europe. These people were Mohammedans and were 
much disliked by the Christians. In 1453 they seized 
Constantinople, the most important city in southeastern 
Europe. From that city as a base, they penetrated into 
central Europe. For a time it looked as if they would 
overrun all the southern part of the German Empire; 
but the Germans by brave resistance finally checked 
them. However, Europeans were never able to rescue 
Constantinople from the "unspeakable Turks" and to 
restore its Christian rulers. So the Turks remained its 
proud possessors, adding to their territory in western 
Asia not only this city upon the Bosporus but northern 
Africa, which they likewise conquered. 

Other countries. — Greece was a part of Turkey. Rus- 



ISABELLA OF SpaIN 

After the portrait in the 
Royal Palace at Madrid. 



6 



OUR REPUBLIC 



sia was semi-barbaric and almost unknown to civilized 
Europe. Holland and Belgium were not independent 
countries, but subject from time to time to Germany or 
to Spain. The countries of northern Europe — Norway, 
Sweden, and Denmark — were more or less at war with 
one another. Constant warfare at home and a desire for 
adventure drove many of these Northmen to wander over 
the seas. 

The Norsemen. — In their wanderings the Northmen, 
or Norsemen, touched Iceland, Greenland, and other 

lands. Many of the 
Norsemen had settled in 
England. Some under 
Chief Rollo had gone to 
France, and others as 
far south as Sicily. It is 
said that one, Leif Eric- 
son, a Norse prince, 
about the year 1000 
had crossed the Atlantic 
Ocean and touched upon 
a coast well timbered 
and filled with many 
varieties of wild fruits. 
Thereupon he had called the land Vinland. An account 
of this discovery is to be found in the old stories of 
Iceland, known to history as the Sagas. Judging from 
these stories, the country visited by these Norsemen was 
undoubtedly the region along the coast of New England. 
Although the discovery of New England by the Norse- 
men had no influence on the course of American history, 
it is nevertheless interesting because it shows to what 




A Norseman's Voyage 
Sketched after the Norse ship recon- 
structed for the Columtrian Exposition, 
and now in the Field Museum, Chicago. 



GEOGRAPHICAL KNOWLEDGE IN 1492 



extent these people explored the seas. According to the 
old reports, Leif built some houses in Vinland. A few 
years later a bold Norseman, Karl- 
sefni, having talked with Leif about 
the new land, determined to settle 
it. With his beautiful bride, Gudrid, 
and a number of settlers, he sailed to 
the New World. He found the rude 
houses that Leif had constructed, 
and in these he lived for a short time. 
There Gudrid bore a son, known to 
us as Snorri - — the first European 
child reported to have been born in 
America. The natives were so fierce, 
however, that Karlsefni, with his wife 
and son and companions, soon re- 
turned to Greenland. They carried 
with them lumber and furs. Ac- 
cording to an old story, Karlsefni 
bought from the natives for a few strips of red flannel 
furs worth hundreds of dollars. 

But reasons other than mere adventure and conquest 
were responsible for a great voyage, which made America 
known to Europe. 




Statue of Leif Eric- 
son, Boston, Massa- 
chusetts 

Miss A. Whitney, Sculp- 
tor. 



CHAPTER II 

GEOGRAPHICAL KNOWLEDGE IN 1492 



Trade conditions in 1492. — At the time that the Turks 
established themselves along the eastern and southern 
shores of the Mediterranean Sea, the European peoples 
were enjoying a profitable trade with India, which was 



8 OUR REPUBLIC 

then, as now, one of the wealthiest countries of the world. 
Three important trade routes to Asiatic countries had been 
opened up. One route was by ship through the Mediter- 
ranean and Black Seas, and thence overland by caravan 
into China, or northern India. Another route was by 




Trade Routes to the East in the Fifteenth Century 



caravan from some port, usually Antioch, on the eastern 
shore of the Mediterranean Sea, to the Persian Gulf, 
and thence by ship to India. A third route was over- 
land by way of the Isthmus of Suez, and thence by ship 
through the Red Sea and the Indian Ocean. B}^ means 
of this trade — largely in silks, jewels, and spices — many 
merchants had grown rich; and Venice, Genoa, and Pisa 
had become the trade centers of Europe. 



GEOGRAPHICAL KNOWLEDGE IN 1492 9 

As soon as the Turks had secured themselves in eastern 
Europe and western Asia, they began to interfere seri- 
ously with all of the trade between Europe and Asia. It 
became evident that unless new trade routes could be 
established, the great cities of Italy would decline in 
wealth, and Europeans would have to do without many 
of the luxuries that India had furnished. 

The adventures of Meirco Polo. — In this day of prog- 
ress and knowledge, it is hard to realize how difficult 
it was four hundred years ago to establish new routes of 
trade. In the latter part of the thirteenth century, a rich 
merchant of Venice, Marco Polo, in a spirit of adventure 
went across Asia to China. He was absent from home 
for twenty-four years. On returning to Venice he had 
much difficulty in securing his house, as no one would at 
first believe that the real Marco Polo could have returned 
in safety. Wonderful stories he told of China and its 
wealth, so strange, indeed, that few would credit him. 
He claimed that the emperor of China had made him an 
officer of the court, and had given him great riches. To 
prove this he displayed to his friends quantities of rubies, 
emeralds, and diamonds, which fairly dazzled their eyes. 
From the accounts of Marco Polo, all Europe gradually 
learned of the fabled wealth of China, or Cathay as it 
was then called. Many, therefore, longed to reach China 
and India without the interference of the Turks. 

Geographical knowledge in 1492. — The degraded condi- 
tion of most of the people, and the superstitions of the 
times blocked the way of rapid progress. The known 
world was Europe, western and southern Asia, and north- 
ern Africa. Explorers had been accustomed to travel 
east, but the great ocean to the west of Europe was un- 



10 



OUR REPUBLIC 



explored. It was popularly thought to be filled with 
awful monsters, which would destroy any ship that ven- 
tured out upon it. The great body of the people be- 
lieved that the world was flat, so that any suggestion of 
reaching Asia by way of the west was at once regarded 
as visionary. Moreover, the promoter of such an idea 




The Part of the World (White on the Map) Known to Europeans 

BEFORE 1492 



might be considered by many as a heretic, since it 
was still taught that, according to the Scriptures, the 
world was flat and had four corners. As these ideas 
were general and people were slow to do anything 
contrary to accepted beliefs and customs, few men were 
bold enough to try to solve the problem of a new route 
to India. 

There were at this time two geographies, each written 
many centuries before, that were still relied upon by 
scholars. One of these, written by Mela, said that 



THE PLAN OF COLUMBUS 11 

Africa was a small country and that its southern limit 
did not reach to the equator. The other, written by- 
Ptolemy, claimed that Africa was a long continent, which 
made a great bend and united with southeastern Asia, 
thus inclosing the Indian Ocean as a large inland sea. 
The acceptance of Ptolemy's view meant that India could 
not be reached by sailing around Africa. No one had 
actually proved, by sailing around the coast of Africa, 
the truth of either view. 

Earlier in the century there had lived in Portugal a 
prince known to history as Prince Henry the Navigator, 
who determined to test the matter by actual experiment. 
Accordingly he sent out many expeditions to sail south- 
ward along the African coast in the hope that his sailors 
might find a way to India. In 1471, after Prince Henry's 
death, some Portuguese sailors crossed the equator; but as 
they failed to reach the southern part of Africa, they con- 
cluded that Ptolemy was right and Mela was wrong. On 
their return they declared that India could not be reached 
by sailing around Africa; and their conclusion was readily 
accepted, for strange stories had been told about the 
southern seas. Some said that the water at the equator 
was boiling hot, and the sun so burning as to blacken per- 
manently the skin of a white man. 

CHAPTER III 

THE PLAN OF COLUMBUS 

Toscanelli. — Despite the folly or heresy of declaring 
that the earth is round, some rose above the superstitions 
of their times. Among the ancient Greeks and among 
the Christians of the Middle Ages could be found now 



12 



OUR REPUBLIC 



and then a scholar who beheved this and dared to make 
pubhc his opinion. In the fifteenth century there hved 
in Italy an astronomer named Toscanelli, who claimed 
that the earth is not flat. In his speculations he drew 
a map, locating the different countries upon the earth as 




TOSCANELLI'S MaP 

Restored and somewhat simplified. 



a sphere. As the continents of the western hemisphere 
were then unknown, they do not appear on the map. 
According to Toscanelli's idea, Japan (Zipangu) was 
about the same distance from Spain as is modern 
Mexico; and the circumference of the earth was only 
about 17,000 or 18,000 miles instead of 25,000 miles, 
as we know it to be. In 1474 Toscanelli gave a copy 
of this map to a young friend who was deeply^ interested 
in the study of geography. 



THE PLAN OF COLUMBUS 



13 



The early life of Columbus. — This friend of Toscanelli 
was no other than Christopher Columbus, one of the 
bravest characters of history. He was born about 1446 
ill the city of Genoa, Ital}^, and spent his youth follow- 
ing the occupation of his father, who was a humble 
wool comber. But during 
such hours of leisure as his 
father allowed him, he used 
to go down to the busy 
wharves of Genoa to listen 
to the stories of the sailors. 
Ever}' bit of geography and 
adventure that he heard he 
treasured eagerly and pon- 
dered over as he combed the 
wool in his father's shop. 
At last he himself became a 
sailor. Once he was ship- 
wrecked on the coast of Por- 
tugal; and there he learned 
of the exploring parties sent 
out by Prince Henry the 

Navigator, and of their failure to find an all-water route 
to the shores of India. 

The desire of Columbus. — During his residence in 
Portugal, Columbus thought of the accomplishment of 
a westward voyage to Asia, across the unknown seas. 
The vision grew from a mere wish to a determination. 
He studied carefully Toscanelli's map. Moreover, he 
was greatly influenced by a book on geography, pub- 
lished in 1409, which declared that the earth is round. 
He was convinced that Asia could be reached by sail- 




Christopher Columbus 

After the portrait in the Royal Palace 
at Madrid. 



14 OUR REPUBLIC 

ing westward; and if this were accomplished, not only 
could western Europe trade with Asia unmolested by 
the Turks, but knowledge of the earth would be in- 
creased. There seems to have been in his mind no 
thought of a new world lying between Europe and Asia, 
but the desire to find a new route with new opportunities 
for trade between the old countries of Asia and the west- 
ern countries of Europe. 

His search for help. — Columbus sought aid for his 
enterprise first in Genoa and then in Venice, but the mer- 
chants only laughed at him. He was full of zeal, how- 
ever, and offered his services as an explorer to the king 
of Portugal. Crafty old King John delayed giving Co- 
lumbus a decisive answer. In the meantime he sent some 
sailors west to explore the ocean. They soon returned and 
reported that the plan of Columbus was visionary and that 
no European ship could brave the rough waves of the At- 
lantic and the terrible sea monsters that filled its waters. 
Thereupon the king declined to avail himself of the offer 
of Columbus, and thus to Portugal was lost the honor of 
sending out this great man on a wonderful undertaking. 

Undismayed, Columbus apphed to King Ferdinand and 
Queen Isabella of Spain. This country had just entered 
upon an era of great prosperity. Moreover, it was ruled 
by two ambitious monarchs, ready to undertake what- 
ever might bring glory to their country. But the plan 
proposed by Columbus appeared to them so foolhardy 
that they were unwilling to further it without the ap- 
proval of the learned men of Spain. These were con- 
sulted freely. For many reasons they ridiculed any 
notion of a western voyage; but particularly on the 
ground that the earth was not round. They said that if 



THE PLAN OF COLUMBUS 



15 



the earth were round, the people hving on the other 
side would be walking with their feet upward. 

Columbus thereupon departed to go into France; but 
on the way, wearied by his journey, he stopped at a Span- 
ish monastery. To the abbot of this monastery he 
explained his whole plan and convinced him that a 




Columbus at the Court of Ferdinand and Isabella 

After the painting by Brozik in the Metropolitan Museum of Art, 

New York City. 

western voyage was possible. The abbot presented 
the matter to Queen Isabella, and the good queen de- 
termined to equip ships for the undertaking. She was 
willing even to pledge her jewels, should government 
money be withheld. Thus it was that the wisdom of 
an abbot and the foresight of a clear-headed woman 
prepared the way for a voyage that was to change the 
course of history. 



16 OUR REPUBLIC 

CHAPTER IV 

THE VOYAGES OF COLUMBUS 

The memorable voyage of Columbus in 1492. — As soon 
as he had secured the support of Queen Isabella, Co- 
lumbus began to make preparations for his voyage. 
Three ships, the Santa Maria, the Pinta, and the Nina, 
were soon equipped. After much persuasion — for many 
refused to go for fear of sea monsters — a crew was 
secured. On the 3d of August, 1492, Columbus set sail 
from Palos. Hardly had the ships reached the high seas 
when the rudder of one vessel broke. The expedition was 
forced to go to the Canary Islands for repairs. When 
everything had been properly righted, Columbus started 
due west. For thirty-odd days he sailed on against 
the protests and murmurings of the sailors. Day by 
day their opposition grew more bitter, till they refused 
to continue the voyage. Then Columbus resorted to 
strategy, deceiving them into thinking that the distance 
sailed was not half so great as they had believed. The 
crew was at the point of mutiny; hope of land was about 
to be given up, when lo ! some branches containing berries 
were seen floating on the waters. Soon carved pieces of 
wood appeared, and birds such as the sailors had never 
seen before soared about their ships. 

Land discovered. — As darkness came on, everyone felt 
that the vessels were approaching land and eagerly 
awaited some visible sign. About two o'clock on the 
morning of October 12th, one Rodrigo de Triana called 
out, ''Land! Land!" After waiting a few hours in in- 



THE VOYAGES OF COLUMBUS 



17 



tense anxiety, by the light of the early dawn they saw, 
at a short distance from the vessels, a beautiful green 
island. At early dawn Columbus landed and took 
possession of the country in the name of Ferdinand and 




Columbus's Depakture from Palos 
After the painting by Bacala. 



Isabella. The island was probably one of the Bahama 
group. It was inhabited by a race of people whom 
Columbus named Indians, for he thought that he had 
touched upon the coast of India. From this island Co- 
lumbus sailed southward and discovered Cuba and Haiti. 



18 



OUR REPUBLIC 



Wherever he went, crowds of men, women, and children, 
bringing food and drink, came to see him and his sail- 
ors. They believed that the white men were gods. 

Spain aroused. — In a short time Columbus turned his 
course homeward. It was an eventful day in the his- 




Three Drawings from Columbus's Letter of 1493 
An ocean vessel— the Ad- Columbus lands on Haiti Columbus builds a 
miral's caravel. and surprises the fort and colony 

natives. at Haiti. 

The letter of Columbus first recounting his discovery was translated into Lati* 
and sent to Rome to be published immediately after his return to Spain 
(March 15, 1493). These drawings, from an edition of the letter, are thought 
to have been copied from sketches made by Columbus himself. 



tory of Europe when Columbus reentered the harbor of 
Palos, from which he had sailed seven months before. 
Of the three little ships, only two reached the home port, 
one having been wrecked in a storm off the coast of 
Haiti. The arrival being reported throughout the town, 
the people rushed to the wharf to hear accounts of 
the voyage. They marveled at several Indians whom 
Columbus brought with him. Indeed, they listened in- 
tently to every story of adventure told by any member 



THE VOYAGES OF COLUMBUS 19 

of the crew. There were no telegraph Unes to spread the 
news of the wonderful voyage ; but a swift messenger was 
dispatched to the city of Barcelona, where the Spanish 
sovereigns held court. Hither Columbus proceeded by 
slow journeyings. Wherever he went, he was greeted as 
a prince; and his journey was in all respects a march of 
triumph. On reaching Barcelona he was received as one 
of royal blood and had great honors conferred upon him. 

The second voyage of Columbus. — Columbus's report 
on the lands he had seen created an intense desire to send 
out other expeditions. It was thought that a new route 
to India had been found, and for the time there was no 
thought of a new world. As the rulers of Spain were 
impressed by the accounts of the richness of the country, 
they at once sent Columbus upon a second voyage. 
There was no difficulty in securing sailors for this trip. 
This time hundreds were ready to go. In September, 
1493, the expedition set sail. Again Cuba was reached, 
and shortly afterward Jamaica was discovered. Colum- 
bus visited also Haiti, where, on his first voyage, he had 
left a garrison of forty men. These had all perished or 
had been massacred by the natives. A second colony 
was then planted in Haiti. This colony did not flourish; 
For the men quarreled and had no thought of work, hop- 
ing merely to secure wealth quickly from the natives. 
Their oppression of the Indians made the success of the 
colony impossible. Finally Columbus was forced to re- 
turn to Spain. 

The third voyage of Columbus. — The king and queen, 
while disappointed with the results of the second voyage 
of Columbus, still remained friendly. Another expedi- 
tion was equipped, and he was again sent out to find India 



20 



OUR REPUBLIC 



and China. In the hope of reaching Asia, Columbus 
sailed farther south than he had done before; but, in- 
stead of reaching the coast of Asia, he touched (1498) 
upon the northern coast of South America. Though 
realizing that these lands were more than an island, he 
failed to grasp the fact that he had discovered a new 
world. His desire was to continue until he should 
find a passage to India, but he was taken ill and forced 
to sail to Haiti, There he found 
the Spanish colony in great turmoil. 
Some of the colonists were in re- 
bellion against their governor, and 
a bitter war was being waged with 
the natives. Columbus was seized, 
put in chains, and sent back to 
Spain to answer the charge of creat- 
ing sedition. The Spaniards, how- 
ever, were his friends; and great 
was their indignation when the ex- 
plorer was brought back to Spain 
a prisoner. The queen immediately ordered his release. 

A water route to India discovered. — Shortly after Colum- 
bus started on his third voyage, all Spain was aroused 
by the report that Vasco da Gama, who had left Portu- 
gal in 1497 at the head of an exploring party, had 
sailed around the south of Africa, crossed the Indian 
Ocean, and reached India. Two years later he re- 
turned to Portugal, his ships laden with the products of 
the far-famed India. Thus while Columbus was explor- 
ing the West, Portuguese sailors had reached the goal 
toward which the merchants of Europe had for centuries 
longingly turned their eyes. After all, Portugal had out- 




Vasco da Gama 



THE UNKNOWN LANDS A NEW WORLD 21 

stripped Spain in finding the long desired route to the 
East. These facts were known in Spain when Colum- 
bus was brought back in chains from his third voyage. 
Hence, though he held the sympathies of the people, it 
was, nevertheless, generally felt that his voyages had as 
yet brought no profit to the Spanish kingdom. 

The fourth voyage of Columbus. — In 1502 the Span- 
ish government determined to send Columbus upon a 
fourth expedition. This time he searched carefully 
along the coast of Central America, hoping to find a pas- 
sage to India. After an absence of two years, he gave up 
his search and returned to Spain practically a broken- 
hearted man. Two years later he died. It is probable 
that Columbus never knew that he had actually dis- 
covered a new world. He thought that Cuba was an 
island off the coast of Asia, but possibly regarded South 
America as a new continent. Though Columbus himself 
accomplished little to enrich Spain, his voyages were 
incentives to others; and in a few years, as the result 
of his brave effort, Spain had possession of a large part 
of North and South America. Moreover, men's ideas of 
geography were completely changed, and a new era of op- 
portunity was opened. 

CHAPTER V 

THE UNKNOWN LANDS A NEW WORLD 

The Cabots. — No European country was willing that 
Spain should reap all the benefits that might result from 
western discoveries. Hence England, Portugal, and 
France entered the contest of exploration. England 
was among the first. Her king, Henry VII, was ready 



22 



OUR REPUBLIC 




Sebastian Cabot 

After a portrait credited to 

Holbein. 



to undertake anything that would build up English trade. 
He commissioned John Cabot, an Italian seaman living in 
England, to sail westward. In 1497, Cabot began his 
voyage, but he found only a barren coast, probably 
Labrador; and his ship was almost destroyed by ice- 
bergs. Then, heading southward, he reached a fertile 
island, probably Cape Breton. When he returned to 

England, he was given by the 
''stingy" king ten pounds for 
the discovery of the new island, 
was allowed to dress in silken 
clothing, and was called Ad- 
miral. The next year with his 
son, Sebastian Cabot, he sailed 
westward and northwest, but 
finding the seas perilous with ice 
turned south and, according to 
report, explored the coast of 
North America from the shores 
of Nova Scotia to the Carolinas. 
On his return he gave a glowing 
description of the region; for he 
had seen many varieties of fruit and forest. Because of 
these discoveries, the Enghsh many years later laid claim 
to the greater part of North America. 

As yet no one seemed to realize that a new world had 
actually been discovered. 

Americus Vespucius. — About the time that the Cabots 
w^ere sailing the northern part of the Atlantic Ocean, 
another Italian, whose home was the city of Florence, 
was exploring the Atlantic far to the south. His name 
was Amerigo Vespucci, or, in Latin, Americus Vespucius. 



THE UNKNOWN LANDS A NEW WORLD 23 



By occupation he was a merchant, but by incHnation he 
was a student of geography and an explorer. While on 
a business trip to Spain in 1493, he had met Columbus, 
just returned from his first voyage, and had at once 
determined to be an 
explorer himself. Soon 
afterward he made two 
voyages under the flag 
of Spain. Later he 
entered the service of 
the King of Portugal 
and made several voy- 
ages along the coast 
of Brazil, sailing far 
south of the equator, 
and discovering a great 
expanse of territory. 

The New World called 
America. — Americus 
Vespucius wrote an 
account of his explora- 
tions, which was pub- 
lished in many lan- 
guages of Europe. 
The learned men re- 
called that the ancient 

geographer Mela had said that there was a fourth un- 
known continent. At once some of them began to say 
that Americus had in reality discovered a new world. 
In 1507 a German geographer named Waldseemiiller 
publislied a little geography describing the new con- 
tinent, which he called America. This America was 




Cabot's Ship on the Coast of Labrador 



24 



OUR REPUBLIC 



only South America; but in after years, when it was 
found that the northern lands were not a part of Asia, 
the name America was given to all the New World. 
Thus it happened that the hemisphere in which we 
live took its name from Americus Vespucius, not from 

Christopher Columbus. 

Balboa's discovery of the 
Pacific Ocean. — In 1513 a 
Spanish explorer named Bal- 
boa was wrecked on the 
Isthmus of Darien. He and 
his men found some Indians, 
whom they robbed of all 
their gold. When they de- 
manded more, the Indians 
told them to go to the west. 
After climbing the tops of 
mountains in their quest, 
they saw a broad expanse of 
water, which Balboa called 
the South Sea. In the name 
of Spain, he claimed the ocean and all its islands. This 
discovery was reported in Spain, and soon the news had 
spread that evidently a great sea lay between the New 
World and Asia. 

Magellan's expedition proves that the earth is round. — 
Strange to say, no exploration had yet proved anything 
as to the shape of the earth, and no one had yet found 
out whether Asia could be reached by sailing westward. 
With a determination to explore South America and to 
reach Asia if possible, in 1519 Ferdinand Magellan fitted 
out an expedition of five ships. Sailing along the coast 




Americus Vespucius 

After a contemporary portrait by 

Bronzino. 



OTHER SPANISH EXPLORATIONS 



25 



of South America, he reached the narrow passage since 
called the Strait of Magellan. He passed through this 
vstrait and out upon the broad ocean which he called the 
Pacific. Turning northward he skirted the western 
shore of South America for 
some distance, then heading 
al^ruptly westward sailed 
across the Pacific. In time 
he reached the Philippine Is- 
lands. Here, in a quarrel 
with some of the natives, 
Magellan was killed. But 
his followers continued the 
voyage, and sailed around 
Africa. Finally (1522), one 
vessel, manned by thirty-six 
survivors and laden with 
spices, returned to Spain. 

At last the world had 
been circled! It was no longer a theory but a fact 
that the earth is round. The ideas of Toscanelli and 
Columbus about the shape of the earth were now 
known to be true. 




Ferdinand Magellan 



CHAPTER VI 

OTHER SPANISH EXPLORATIONS 

The line of demarcation. — In 1493 Pope Alexander VI, 
by a famous document, divided all the newly discovered 
lands between Spain and Portugal. By a treaty, soon 
afterward, a north and south line three hundred and 



26 



OUR REPUBLIC 



\flenry Hudson /'"'v'~^^"'^^"^^^^'~n > ^ v^ 










>,-' 







Early Voyages ackoss the Atlantic 

seventy leagues west of the Azores became the so-called 
''line of demarcation." All lands discovered east of this 
line should go to Portugal, all west to Spain. Since this 
line passed through Brazil, Portugal secured that country 



OTHER SPANISH EXPLORATIONS 27 

and made no further efforts to acquire territory in America. 
Thus the New World was left practically to Spain. 

Ponce de Leon. — Spanish explorers followed up the 
work of Columbus and discovered most of the islands in 
the West Indies. Early in the sixteenth century Porto 
Rico was settled; and in 1513 Ponce de Leon, the governor 
of that island, sailed to Florida. He was then an old man. 




De Soto and His Men at Tampa Bay 
After a drawing by Captain Eastman. 

He had heard that somewhere in the new land there was 
a fountain of youth; and he was in quest of it when, on an 
Easter morning, he touched the shores of Florida. In 1521 
he sailed again to Florida to make a settlement there; but 
on landing, he was mortally wounded by some Indians. 
So, for a time, Spaniards made no further attempt to 
settle Florida. 

Hernando de Soto. — In 1539 the governor of Cuba was 
Hernando de Soto. Like others of his race, he was seeking 
gold. With a band of six hundred men he crossed to 



28 



OUR REPUBLIC 



Florida, disembarked at Tampa Bay, and proceeded north- 
ward. The fevers of the Florida swamps overcame 
many of his men. He left them behind him, dead or 
dying, pushed on, and entered what is now Georgia. 
Here he bent his course westward. With his followers 
growing daily fewer and fewer, he pressed on till he 
reached the great river that the Indians called Mississippi. 

Up to this point he had trav- 
ersed four of the present South- 
ern States, Florida, Georgia, 
Alabama, and Mississippi. He 
crossed the great river, made his 
way into what is now Missouri, 
turned southward, and, travers- 
ing Arkansas, again reached the 
Mississippi near the present 
site of Natchez. At this point 
he was taken ill with a fever 
from which he died. He and 
his followers, as the Spaniards 
had done many times before, 
had pretended to the natives 
that they were gods and could not die. Now it was 
necessary that De Soto's men should, for their own safety, 
keep the Indians ignorant of this deception. So by night 
they lowered his body into the Mississippi, thus burying 
him in the great waters he had discovered. Then the 
few survivors of the expedition passed down the river 
and along the coast, and after much wandering reached 
some Spanish settlements in Mexico. Here they made 
known the facts of De Soto's explorations. Knowledge 
of North America was gradually widening. 




Hernando de Soto 



OTHER SPANISH EXPLORATIONS 



29 



Other Spanish explorers. — A Spaniard named Cortez 
conquered Mexico in 1519; and in 1531 another, Pizarro, 
seized Peru. 

In 1528 Narvaez reached the west coast of Florida 
and explored the shores of the Gulf of Mexico as far 
as Texas. Here he was shipwrecked, and he and all 
his men except four perished. These four, after six 
years of wandering, reached Mexico. An account of 
their adventures was 
given by one of their 
number, Cabeza de 
Vaca. 

Some years later a 
certain Francisco de 
Coronado heard from 
Indians that there 
were rich villages 
north of Mexico 
called the cities of 
Cibola, and in 1540 
he went in search of them. He crossed southern Nevada, 
New Mexico, and Arizona, and probably reached Kansas 
and Nebraska. But when he turned back, it was without 
having found the reported cities of wealth. He had seen 
only the crude villages of the Pueblo Indians. This 
exploration, with De Soto's, proved that North America 
was no narrow strip of land, but a vast continent. 
Many geographers thought, however, that farther north 
the continent became very narrow. Some believed that 
there was a passage to the north by which Asia could be 
reached. 

Earlier in the century a Spaniard, D'Ayllon, had sailed 




An Indian Pueblo (Town) Built of Sun- 
Dried Clay 



30 



OUR REPUBLIC 




north along the Atlantic coast and entered Chesapeake 
Bay. He meant to establish a colony within the present 
borders of Virginia, but his death there ended the plan. 

The settlement of Florida. — By the explorations of 
Ponce de Leon, Narvaez, and De Soto, the Spaniards 
learned of Florida. In 1559, by authority of King 
Philip II, Velasco, with fifteen hundred soldiers and many 
missionaries, settled at Pensacola 
Bay. Two years later, on account 
of the climate, the settlement was 
abandoned. However, in 1565 Pe- 
dro Menendez arrived in Florida 
with five hundred troops and be- 
gan the building of the town of St. 
Augustine. This is the oldest city 
in the United States. The Spanish 
colony of Florida grew slowly. Here 
and there smaller settlements were 
made; and Catholic missionaries 
established schools and missions, 
and undertook to convert the Indians to Christianity. 

Spain's colonial policy. — The result of the Spanish 
explorations in America was the occupation of all South 
America except Brazil, nearly all the islands of the West 
Indies, the present State of Florida, Central America, 
and Mexico, the latter then including Texas and Cali- 
fornia. Spain's policy was to secure all the wealth pos- 
sible from these colonies. In the West Indies the 
natives were worked to death by their Spanish masters, 
and soon negro slaves were imported to take their 
place. In the South American colonies and Mexico the 
Spaniards made friends with the natives and in many 



A Corner of Fort San 

Marco (Fort Marion) 

St. Augustine 

Showing the lookout 

tower on the wall and 

the nioat below. 



FRENCH AND DUTCH EXPLORATIONS 



31 



cases intermarried with them. Spanish missionaries went 
into these countries and estabhshed mission schools. None 
of the Spanish colonies had any great amount of freedom; 
all were forced to contribute largely to the mother country. 
By this policy Spain lived upon the resources of the colo- 
nies and kept them in subjection. It was not until the 
early part of the nineteenth century that they began to 
free themselves from Spanish rule. 



CHAPTER VII 

FRENCH AND DUTCH EXPLORATIONS 

1. French Explorations 

Jacques Cartier. — Hardly had 
lands been discovered in the 
West before French vessels were 
exploring the Atlantic. In the 
early part of the sixteenth cen- 
tury French fishermen were 
found on the banks of New- 
foundland. About 1523 the 
King of France sent an Italian 
named Verrazano to explore the 
North American coast. About 
twenty years later Francis I 
turned his eyes longingly to the 
New World. Being at war with 
Spain, he wished to cripple the Spanish power across the 
seas. He sent out Jacques Cartier, who explored New- 
foundland and Labrador, and entering the Gulf of St. 
Lawrence, ascended the St. Lawrence River to the point 




Jacques Cartier 
After the portrait at St. Malo. 



32 OUR REPUBLIC 

where Montreal now stands. Cartier claimed the whole 
country in the name of France. In 1541 he attempted 
a settlement on the St. Lawrence River, but the severe 
cHmate forced him to give up the undertaking. 

The Huguenots in South Carolina and Florida. — In 
France there was a large Protestant body, known as 
Huguenots, who were severely persecuted by Charles IX, 
a son of Francis I. They wished to secure reHgious free- 
dom, so they applied to King Charles for permission to 
establish a colony in America. The leader in this move- 
ment was a Protestant, Admiral Coligny, a man of noble 
birth. He sent out a colony under Jean Ribault. In 1562 
Ribault planted a settlement in South Carolina on Port 
Royal Harbor. Then he continued his explorations as far 
south as the St. John's River in Florida and claimed the 
whole region in the name of France. After Ribault had 
returned home, his colonists, who were on the verge of 
starvation, built a small vessel and set out to sea. For- 
tunately an English ship picked them up and carried them 
safely home. Two years later the French planted another 
colony under Laudonniere on the St. John's River in 
Florida. They called their settlement Fort Caroline. 
This colony, too, suffered greatly from hunger and would 
have perished but for the timely arrival of Ribault with 
supplies and more settlers — men, women, and children. 

French driven out of South Carolina and Florida. — The 
French settlements in the New World were watched jeal- 
ously by Spain ; for the growth of France on the continent 
so near to the West Indies meant interference with Span- 
ish commerce. It was not long, therefore, before a Spanish 
fleet was dispatched against the settlement on the St. 
John's River. There were five hundred soldiers aboard, 



FRENCH AND DUTCH EXPLORATIONS 



33 




Samuel de Champlain 

After a portrait by 

Moncornet. 



and the whole was commanded by Pedro Menendez. 

Ribault sailed out to meet the Spaniards, but his ships 

were scattered by a storm. Men- 
endez then attacked the French 

colony and totally destroyed it. It 

was at this time that the town of 

St. Augustine (page 30) was founded. 
France lost possession of South 

Carolina and Florida because the 

French king was not friendly to the 

Huguenots. However, Dominique 

de Gourges sold his estates, fitted 

out an expedition, and sailed to 

Florida to get revenge. Every Span- 
iard in the garrison on the St. John's 

River was killed. The French then sailed away, and Spain 

was allowed to hold Florida as far north as Port Royal. 

Canada occupied by the 
French. — For thirty-five 
years France ignored the 
new land. In 1604 King 
Henry IV, having heard 
of the excellent opportu- 
nity for trade in furs 
along the St. Lawrence 
River, granted entire con- 
trol of this trade to De 
Monts on condition that 
he should settle the 
country. 
One of the colonists sent over by De Monts was Samuel 

de Champlain. He explored the coast of New England 




C'hamplain's Settlement at Quebec 

Reduced facsimile of a drawing by 

Champlain. 



34 OUR REPUBLIC 

and the St. Lawrence River, and discovered the lake that 
bears his name. He urged the French to settle the region. 
Under his direction, in 1608 Quebec was founded. The 
beginnings of Quebec were three houses and a courtyard. 
This settlement became permanent, and soon other French 




Hudson Receiving His Commission from the In h h I'.ast India 

Company 

After a painting by Chappel. 

colonies were planted. For twenty-five years Champlain 
remained the leader of the French in Canada. 

2. Dutch Explorations 

Henry Hudson. — The three chief competitors in Ameri- 
can exploration were Spain, France, and England. How- 
ever, the growing republic of the Dutch had in the early 
part of the seventeenth century developed a great trade 



ENGLISH EXPLORATIONS 35 

with the East Indies, and was therefore interested in the 
search for a westward passage to Asia. With this in 
view, in 1608 the Dutch East India Company sent out an 
exploring party under an Enghsh seaman, Henry Hudson. 
The next year, in his ship, the Half Moon, Hudson 
searched the coast a short way southward, then, turning 
north, sailed into New York Bay and up the Hudson River 
as far as the site of the present city of Albany. He re- 
ported to the Dutch the possibility of a large fur trade 
with the Indians, and this stimulated the Dutch in later 
years to make a settlement in this region. Because of the 
explorations of Hudson, the Dutch claimed all the terri- 
tory between the Connecticut and Delaware rivers. 



CHAPTER VIII 

ENGLISH EXPLORATIONS 

Rivalry between Spain and England. — For more than 
a half century after the explorations of the Cabots, the 
English gave no thought to the New World. With the 
exception of a few fishing vessels which sailed to and 
from Newfoundland, no English ships entered American 
waters. With the reign of Queen Elizabeth, however, 
a spirit for trade and commerce sprang up in all England ; 
and stories from foreign ports roused interest in America. 
Moreover, England became the leading Protestant nation. 
Spain was the leading Catholic nation, and a religious 
antagonism existed between the two. This antagonism 
did not at first take the form of open warfare ; but seldom 
did a Spanish and an English ship meet without a chal- 



36 



OUR REPUBLIC 



lenge. It was partly this rivalry on the seas that led 
England to compete with Spain in America. 

An English sea rover. — Most 
prominent among those who 
constantly engaged in fights 
with Spanish vessels was Sir 
Francis Drake. He pillaged 
Spanish ships wherever he 
found them and carried home 
to England quantities of gold 
and silver captured from the 
Spaniards. In 1577 with five 
ships he set out to plunder 
some of the Spanish towns in 
South America. Four of his 
ships were destroyed ; but with 
the one remaining, the Golden 
Hind, he sailed around South 
America, reached the ports of Chili and Peru, and seized 
booty valued at many milHons. He continued northward 




Sir Francis Drake 
After an old English engraving. 




The Circumnavigation of the Globe by Magellan and Drake 

in the hope of finding the " Northwest Passage," touched 
the shores of Oregon, and claimed the country for England. 



ENGLISH EXPLORATIONS TT 

Failing to find the " Northwest Passage," ^ he crossed 
the Pacific Ocean and returned to England by way of the 
Cape of Good Hope. Drake was the first Englishman 
to sail around the world. 

Gilbert's scheme. — Sir Humphrey Gilbert favored an 
English settlement in America for two reasons: first, it 
would make it easier for the English to oppose the growth 
of Spain; second, it would increase the commerce of Eng- 
land. Under a charter secured from Queen Elizabeth he 
tried to establish a colony in Newfoundland (1583), but 
was compelled to abandon it. On his voyage to England 
he was lost in a storm. It was reported that as the ship 
went down he said to his comrades, ''Be of good cheer. 
It is as near to heaven by sea as by land. 'V Sir Hum- 
phrey Gilbert and Sir Francis Drake were typical English- 
men of the time of Queen Elizabeth. They were strong 
believers in the Bible and in prayer, but they were rough 
and uncouth and cruel to their enemies. 

Sir Walter Raleigh. — Sir Humphrey Gilbert had a half 
brother, Sir Walter Raleigh. At the time of the death of 
Sir Humphrey Gilbert, Raleigh was in great favor with 
the queen. It was reported that he had first won her 
confidence by spreading his cloak over a muddy place be- 
fore her in one of the walks around her palace. At his 
request Queen Elizabeth granted him a charter to a 
greater portion of the English claims in America. 

The explorations of Amadas and Barlow. — In 1584 Raleigh 
sent Captains Amadas and Barlow to explore the coun- 

' It is to be remembered that the Cabots when they discovered North 
America were looking for a route to India. Such a route was supposed 
to exist and later was spoken of as the " Northwest Passage." In 1576 
Frobisher sailed in search of this route and in 1585, Davis. 



38 



OUR REPUBLIC 





K 


i . 








^pSSSWT-.^^gSP' J . ,- 




-^^m 


WMtl^^ 


^■k ^v-|^^S 


1 



try. After a tedious voyage these men landed on the 
coast of what is now North Carohna. Great was their 

dehght at the magnificent 
woods, the game, and the 
many varieties of vegetables 
they saw. They took with 
them to England several of 
the natives and specimens 
of potato, tobacco plant, and 
Indian corn. Their reports 
created such interest in the 
new country that, in honor 
of the ''Virgin Queen," as 
Elizabeth was called, it was 
named Virginia. 

The first colony on Roanoke 
Island. — The encouraging re- 
ports of Raleigh's exploring 
party made it easy for him to organize a band of settlers. 
They sailed from England in 1585, guarded by a fleet 
under the command of Sir Richard Grenville. Ralph 
Lane was in charge of the colony. He was an enterpris- 
ing man; and as soon as the colonists landed on Roanoke 
Island, everyone was made to go to work. A fort was 
built, and a number of rude houses were quickly con- 
structed. Grenville with his fleet sailed back to Eng- 
land. Unfortunately, on reaching Roanoke the settlers 
had some trouble with the Indians; so when their pro- 
visions were exhausted, none could be had from the 
natives. The colony was forlorn w^hen, a year later, Sir 
Francis Drake came up from the West Indies where he 
had been plundering Spanish commerce. He took the 



Sir Walter Raleigh 
After a portrait dated 1602. 



ENGLISH EXPLORATIONS 



39 



half-starved colonists on board his ships and carried 
them back to England. A few days later, a supply ship 
arrived, and finding the colonists gone, returned to Eng- 
land leaving fifteen men at Roanoke. 

The second colony on Roanoke Island. — Raleigh's deter- 
mination to colonize the new country was not crushed 
out by the failure of his first attempt. He organized 
a company to aid in a second effort and sent out one 
hundred and fifty persons. John White was appointed 
governor. The new col- 
ony reached Roanoke in 
1587. The garrison were 
all dead, but the old houses 
were found standing and 
were soon repaired, and 
the settlement was re- 
established under what 
seemed to be favorable 
conditions. Soon after, 
1587, a child was born 
there — Virginia Dare, the 
first child born of English 
parents in the New 
World. Her mother was 
Eleanor, the daughter of 
Governor White and the 
wife of Ananias Dare. 
With the colony well 

under way. Governor White returned to England for 
supplies. On reaching home, he found that England 
and Spain were about to engage in a great conflict. 
Philip II of Spain had openly declared war against the 




Raleigh's Colonists Plani;:.;. la 
English Standard at Roanoke 



40 



OUR REPUBLIC 



English nation and was sending a mighty fleet, known 
in history as the Spanish Armada, to conquer the British 
Isles. All England was aroused, and every ship was 
pressed into service to fight the Spaniards. But Raleigh 
did not forget his colony at Roanoke. He dispatched 










"The Arrival of the Englishemen in Virginia" 
Reduced facsimile of one of several drawings made in Virginia in 1585 by John 
White; first reproduced to illustrate an account of the voyage written by 
John Hariot, one of the settlers, as a report to Raleigh. The original draw- 
ings are in the British Museum. 

a ship with supphes. The ship, however, was destroyed 
by storm. It was three years later before Governor 
White could return to the aid of the colony on Roanoke 
Island. When at last he reached the settlement, all the 
houses were in ruins. The only sign to guide his search 
was the word "Croatoan" carved on one of the posts 
of a rough stockade. 



ENGLISH EXPLORATIONS 



41 



The lost colony. — White had made an agreement with 
he colonists that if they should leave the settlement they 
vould carve on a tree, or on the doorposts of their houses, 
.lie name of the place to which they would go. If they 
should leave in distress, a cross should be carved above 
the word. No cross appeared above the word '^ Croatoan," 
30 White concluded that the settlers were not in dire cir- 
cumstances when they abandoned Roanoke. But where 
tvas Croatoan? Five expeditions were sent out to find 
:he place, but no sign of the settlers was ever seen. As 
X matter of fact, however, no 
search was made far from the 
3oast. There are to-day in 
N^orth Carolina some people 
inown as the'' Croatan Indians." 
Many of them have blue eyes and 
ight hair, indicating that in their 
/eins runs the blood of the white 
nan. So, by some historians it 
s thought that the lost colony 
)f Roanoke went to the lands 
)ccupied by the Croatan Indians 
md intermarried with them. 

With the Roanoke colony per- 
shed Raleigh's efforts to colonize 
Vmerica. It was twenty years before the English at- 
;empted another settlement. Still Raleigh had done 
nore to point the way to the new land than had any 
)ther Englishman of his day. North Carolina has 
lone well in naming her capital city for this soldier, 
cholar, and far-seeing man. The fate of Raleigh is sad. 
^fter the death of Queen Elizabeth, her successor, James I, 



B^ 


H 


^KjkM 


H 


^^m 


9 


^O 


m 


mp*^ 


H 



Elizabeth, Queen of Eng- 
land 1558-1603 
After a portrait at Kensington. 



42 OUR REPUBLIC 

imprisoned him. Many years later, in 1618, to pacify the 
Spaniards Raleigh was beheaded by order of the king.j 
Raleigh had lived long enough, however, to know thatj 
his plans for American colonization had met with success. 



CHAPTER IX 

THE AMERICAN INDIAN 

The natives of the New World. — Wherever in America 
the Europeans went, they found vast tracts of land unin- 
habited except where, here or there at some spot favored by 
nature, small settlements had been made. These settle- 
ments were chiefly along the streams where fish were 
abundant, or in some region plentiful with game or fruit 
and vegetables. Everywhere the natives had practically 
the same characteristics and undoubtedly^ belonged to 
the same race. The name by which they have long been 
known was given to them by mistake. When Columbus 
first landed on the Bahama Islands and saw some of these 
natives there, thinking that he had touched the shores 
of India in Asia he called them Indians (page 17). 

Mound builders. — In many parts of the country along 
the Mississippi and Ohio rivers and in the Appalachian 
Mountain range are found numerous mounds. Examina- 
tion of these mounds has revealed human skeletons, many 
kinds of implements from a bone needle to a stone hand 
mill, and ornaments ranging from the crudest copper 
bracelet to a beautiful string of pearls. By some it is 
thought that the mound builders were the mother race 
of the Indian tribes of America. Judging from these 



THE AMERICAN INDIAN 43 

mounds, the New World had been inhabited for many 
centuries before Europeans came to it. 

Population. — The Indians were not numerous in that 
part of America which makes up the United States. 
By some it is estimated that there were not over two 
hundred thousand in all. Others think that there may 
have been a milhon. The Indian settlements, therefore, 
were very far apart. The people were divided into many 
small tribes. In some of these there were not more than 
fifty fighting men. In Mexico and Peru, where the 
Indians had advanced to some state of civilization, the 
population was probably greater. 

The Indians of the United States are usually classified 
according to their mode of living into two classes, savage 
and barbarous. 

The savage Indians. — The savage Indians occupied 
the country north of Mexico between the Pacific Ocean 
and the Pocky Mountains. They lived in a very 
rude way, had rough stone implements and subsisted 
chiefly on wild fruits and such game as they could 
trap. 

The barbarous Indians. — It is with the barbarous 
Indians that we are chiefly concerned; for they were the 
ones with whom our English forefathers came in contact. 
They lived east of the Mississippi River and were divided 
into three races — the Muskhogees, the Iroquois, and the 
Algonquins. The territory now embraced in the States 
of Mississippi, Alabama, Georgia, Florida, North and 
South Carolina, and Tennessee was the home of the 
Muskhogees. There were many small tribes, among them 
being the Chickasaws and Choctaws of Mississippi and 
Alabama, the Seminoles of Florida, the Creeks of Georgia, 



44 



OUR REPUBLIC 



the Yemassees of South CaroUna, and the Catawbas of 
North Carohna. 

The Iroquois, made up of five tribes, hved chiefly in 
New York; but one branch of them, called the Tuscaroras, 
had their home in the Carolinas and Tennessee. Near 
them lived the Cherokees, by some regarded as of the 
Iroquois branch, by others as of the Muskhogees. 




Location of the Principal Indian Tribes of Central North America 



All the country not occupied by the Iroquois north of 
the present southern boundary of Virginia and Kentucky 
and east of the Mississippi River was controlled by the 
Algonquins. Among the tribes were the Powhatans of 
Virginia, the Narragansetts and Pequots of New Eng- 
land, and the Shawnees of the Ohio Valley. 

Mode of living among the barbarous Indians. — The In- 
dians were before all else hunters and warriors. This be- 
ing the case, what httle domestic work was done among 



THE AMERICAN INDIAN 



45 



them was in the hands of the women. The women reared 
the children; cultivated little patches of Indian corn and 
tobacco; crushed the corn in a stone mortar with a 
pestle; did the cooking, and often constructed the wig- 
wam in which the 
family lived. The 
Indian woman was 
called a squaw. Her 
life was, for the most 
part, that of a house- 
hold drudge. 

While the squaw 
stayed at home and 
worked, the warrior, 
or brave, went out to 
hunt or fight. He 
roamed the forest and 
with his bow and ar- 
row shot down deer 
or wolf or bear. Of- 
ten he prepared a 
trap or net in which 
he caught birds or larger game. In his canoe he fre- 
quented the small streams in search of fish. The Indian 
of the tidewater region was fond of oysters, and an oys- 
ter roast was as great a feast to him as it is to the modern 
American. 

The Indians east of the Mississippi River had no 
domestic animals except the dog; and wherever they went, 
they traveled either on foot or in canoes. The various 
tribes were not friendly one with another, and war was 
common among them. The warrior delighted in taking 




An Algonquin FAMii^i 
After a painting by C. Y. Turner, on the wall of 
the Baltimore Court House. By courtesy 
of the artist. 



46 OUR REPUBLIC 

the scalp of his enemy, and the most honored man in a 
tribe was he who had secured in war the greatest number 
of scalps. 

The Indian child's life was a hard one. As a baby 
he was carried around tied to his mother's back. In 
some tribes the heads of the babies were put between 
boards to make them long. Little children were not 
allowed to go freely into the forest for fear of wild animals. 






\\'akfare between the TiiinKf^ ON Lake ^ui'JoUiou 



i 



They were kept around the wigwam and helped the 
squaws in the work. At an early age, however, the 
boys were taught the use of the bow and arrow; and as 
they approached the age of manhood, they were allowed 
to fish and hunt preparatory to becoming warriors. The 
girls learned to cultivate vegetables, to build rude houses, 
and to weave grasses or other fibers into baskets, mats, I 
or clothes. 

Tribal organization. — As previously stated, the Indians 
were organized into small tribes. Each tribe had its 
ruler called king, chief, or sachem. Usually he was 
elected by the warriors. In time of war, these warriors 



THE AMERICAN INDIAN 47 

constituted his council. The hunting grounds and the 
small open pieces of ground for the cultivation of 
Indian corn, tobacco, and melons were the property 
of the tribe. No individual owned any land. All that a 
warrior could call his own were his bow and arrow, his 
tomahawk, and the crude clothes he wore. It was be- 
cause of this tribal organization that the Indians were 




An Indian Chief and His Wakriors in Council 

seldom able to unite against the white men; and this 
was one cause of their failure to check the progress of 
the colonists. 

Personal characteristics. — The Indian is often called 
the red man because his skin is copper-colored. He has 
high cheek bones, small, keen eyes, and straight black 
hair. He is slender and tall. From youth he is trained 
to undergo many hardships and to practice many feats 
of outdoor skill. He can go without sleep for days to- 
gether and will endure without murmur intense cold or 
heat. He is swift of foot, and sure of aim. His senses 
are keen. He knows all the birds and beasts of the 
forest by their cry or bark. His sense of smell is almost 



48 



OUR REPUBLIC 



as well developed as is that of a dog. He has observed 
so carefully all marks and signs in forest or prairie that 

he can readily track 



beast or man. 

By nature the In- 
dian is cruel. In ap- 
proaching an enemy 
he is sly and stealthy, 
preferring to fight in 
ambush rather than 
in the open. He 
trusts few people. 

SC^=^i4*«^^"^ ff '^^^^^^S Those whom he loves 
^ " he loves devotedly 

and will do anything 
in his power to help. 
With his friends he 
smokes the pipe of 
peace. The smoking 
of the peace pipe 
was a ceremony al- 
ways observed when 
tribes that had been 
at war made peace 
with one another. 

The characteristics 
of the western Indian 
to-day are not nearly 

so distinct as they were in his ancestors of a hundred 

years ago. His contact with the white man has been 

changing him. 




"The Towne of Secota" 
One of John White's Virginia drawings of 1585, 
showing an Indian village owned in com- 
mon. Instead of wigwams there are lodges, 
or one-roomed houses. The plantation 
contains fields of corn and tobacco, and 
a grove filled with deer. In the fore- 
ground Indians are performing a festival 
dance. In the last field on the right an 
Indian sits under cover, doing duty as 
a "scarecrow." 



II. THE SETTLEMENT OF THE THIRTEEN 
ORIGINAL COLONIES 

CHAPTER X 

THE SETTLEMENT OF VIRGINIA 

Reasons for English colonization of America. — In Eng- 
land Raleigh's scheme (page 38) was not forgotten. In 
1602 Bartholomew Gosnold visited the American coast 
and was convinced that England should occupy the 
country. About this time several reasons were advanced 
why this should be done: 

1. Other European countries were making settlements 
in America. 

2. Many people in England had nothing to do. Eng- 
land was filled with beggars. Moreover, the younger 
sons of English noblemen did not inherit any part of the 
land or estate of their fathers. They were poor; yet 
they were classed as gentlemen, and as such they felt 
that it was degrading to work. They wished to go to 
some new land where they might secure wealth. They 
noted that many Spaniards had grown rich in the New 
World. They thought that Virginia might be to them 
what the West Indies and South America had been to 
the Spaniards. Many reports had reached England that 
the natives of Virginia made all their utensils of gold. 

3. Great Britain should extend her trade. Far-see- 
ing men knew that with so little land in England, the 

49 



50 



OUR REPUBLIC 



English would have to give up living by agricultural 
pursuits. Nature had decreed that England should be 
a manufacturing and trading country. 

The three reasons given above and many others, 




- — - , ^ I:. '*)' 1JS4-S. 

C O -M (p a':^,'N Y ^ -^ 




The Division of Virginia between the London and Plymouth 

Co:,:PANir:3 

among them the christianizing of the Indians, were 
urged by Richard Hakluyt, an English clergyman. As 
a result of the efforts of Hakluyt, Gosnold, and others, the 
Virginia Company was chartered to settle the New World. 
The London arid Plymouth companies of Virginia. — 
In 1600 Queen Elizabeth granted a charter to the East 
India Company. In a short time the English merchants 
who were stockholders in this company were growing 



THE SETTLEMENT OF VIRGINIA 



51 



rich. Therefore, when the proposition was made to 
King James I to charter a company for the settlement 
of Virginia, he naturally accepted the charter of the East 
India Company as a model. In 1606 the king chartered 
the Virginia Company in two divisions, one as the Lon- 
don Company and the other as the Plymouth Company. 
Each company was to have a council residing in England 
to be presided over by a presi- 
dent and treasurer. The money 
paid into these companies for 
stock, as we say to-day, was to be 
used in sending out settlers and 
in establishing a line of ships, as it 
were, from England to America. 
To the London Company was 
given the right to settle anywhere 
from the 34th to the 41st degrees 
of north latitude, which, roughly 
speaking, means anywhere along 
the Atlantic coast from the mouth 
of the Cape Fear River to the 
mouth of the Hudson. The Plym- 
outh Company could send settlers into the country any- 
where between the 3Sth and the 45th degrees of north lati- 
tude, which, roughly speaking, means from the mouth of 
the Potomac River to Nova Scotia. It was provided that 
if either of the companies established a colony in the over- 
lapping territory between the mouth of the Potomac and 
the mouth of the Hudson, the other Company could not 
settle within one hundred miles of that colony. The 
whole territory from the 34th to the 45th degrees of north 
latitude was designated Virginia. 




James I, King of England 
1603-1625 



52 



OUR REPUBLIC 



Jamestown, the first permanent settlement. — The first 
company to send out a band of colonists was the Plym- 
outh Company. In the fall of 1606 Sir Ferdinando 

Gorges planted a colony in 
Maine; but on account of 
the severity of the cli- 
mate, the settlers aban- 
doned the country the 
following spring. 

Likewise, in the fall of 
1606 the London Company 
equipped three ships, the 
Sarah Constant, the Good- 
speed, and the Discovery. 
These vessels sailed from 
London on December 20, 
1606, and after a difficult 
voyage passed the capes off 
the coast of Virginia, April 
26, 1607. One of these 
capes the colonists named 
Charles and the other 
Henry in honor of the two 
sons of King James I. Landing at Cape Henry, they took 
possession of all the country in the name of the English 
king. Then they passed slowly up the river, stopping at 
several points, and on the 13th of May came to a peninsula, 
now an island, where a settlement was made. In honor of 
their king, they called the river the James and the town 
James City. This town, afterwards known as Jamestown, 
was the first permanent English settlement in America. 
The first English settlers. — The number oi, English who 




The Region of Jamestown and 
Roanoke 



THE STRUGGLES OF JAMESTOWN 53 

settled at Jamestown was one hundred and five. Many 
were classed as gentlemen but only twelve as laborers. 
The gentlemen were unused to hard work, and consequent- 
ly did not know how to use the hoe or the ax. They 
had not come to till the soil. It was due to this fact as 
much as to anj^hing else that the early days of the colony 
were hard ones. Moreover, the government was poorly 
managed. It was in the hands of a council resident in 
the colony. The members had been appointed by the 
king; but, with the exception of Captain John Smith, 
they were not trained to endure hardships. Added to 
these disadvantages, a terrible fever in the summer of 
1607 swept, away all but forty-six of the colonists. 



CHAPTER XI 

THE STRUGGLES OF THE JAMESTOWN COLONY 

Captain John Smith. — One of the most interesting 
characters in American history is Captain John Smith, 
All his life he had been an adventurer. As a boy, he had 
run away from home. When a young man, he joined 
the Germans to fight against the Turks. In the wars 
between these peoples he was made a prisoner and sold 
as a slave to a Turkish lady. After suffering the chains 
of slavery he managed to escape and returned to England. 

On reaching home he heard of the proposed Virginia 
company. He volunteered to go to the new land, and 
so interested himself in the matter that King James 
appointed him — adventurer though he was — a member of 
the council. Smith seems, however, to have been a very 
boastful man and given to arguing v/ith people. These 



54 



OUR REPUBLIC 



characteristics provoked trouble on the voyage; and on 
the charge of stirring up strife, he was put under 
arrest. No sooner, however, had the colonists landed 
at Jamestown than he was tried and acquitted of the 
charge. 

Smith captured by the Indians. — Edward Maria Wing- 
field, president of the Virginia council, paid little atten- 

tion to Smith; so during the 

early days of the colony Smith 
spent his time in exploring. 
While exploring the Chicka- 
hominy River, he was taken 
prisoner by the Pamunkey In- 
dians, whose chief was Opecan- 
canough. ^ He was taken before 
the chief of the Powhatans, 
usually spoken of as Powhatan. 
According to Smith's statement, 
he had been condemned to 
death and his head was about 
to be crushed by a great stone 
when Pocahontas, a young 
daughter of Powhatan and his 
favorite child, fell upon Smith and by her entreaties caused 
her father to relent. A few days later Smith returned 
to Jamestown. This was early in 1608. 







Captain Johi^ Smith 
Reduced facsimile from Smith's 
map in the 1624 edition of his 
"Generall Historie. " 



1 Smith in his history says that the Indians were about to put him to 
death when he drew from his pocket a small compass. They were so 
amazed at the action of the needle that he was able to save his life by 
making signs — for he could not speak the Indian language — explaining 
the use of it. The Indians probably thought he was more than a mere 
man. 



THE STRUGGLES OF JAMESTOWN 55 

The Jamestown Colony in the winter of 1607-8. — When 
Smith returned to Jamestown, he found the colony 
in a terrible condition. Wingfield had proved incapable 
of managing the colonists. They had spent their time 
during the summer in searching for gold instead of plant- 
ing crops; hence when winter came there was but little 
food in the storehouse. Moreover, during the late summer 
and early fall many of the men had died from fever. 
About the time that Smith rejoined his companions, 
Newport came from England with settlers and supplies. 
There were now about two hundred people in the colony. 
For a few months everyone was hopeful. 

Smith president of the council. — Discord soon came 
again. One man after another was made president of the 
council, but failed to accomplish anything. Finally 
Smith was elected. Thereupon he appealed to the Lon- 
don Company for a change of policy and begged it to 
send over mechanics and laborers. In the meantime, 
however, he put the gentlemen to work. He made them 
build houses and stop searching for gold. Being unused 
to hard labor, they had great blisters on their hands from 
working in the forest and the field. It is said that they 
swore loud oaths, for which offense Smith punished them 
by pouring a can of water down the culprit's sleeve for 
every oath. The result of Smith's measures was that 
by the middle of 1609 the colony was in a prosperous 
condition. Some good houses had been built, and much 
land was in cultivation. All told, there were about five 
hundred people in Jamestown in the fall of 1609. Un- 
fortunately for the colony. Smith at this time was injured 
by the explosion of a bag of gunpowder and was forced 
to return to England for medical treatment. 



56 



OUR REPUBLIC 



The new charter of 1609. — The letters that Smith had 
written to the company in England influenced it to make 




THF 

GFNLrLVLL HI5TORIE 

OT 

\ g mi Vcw. EngUnd jnd ihc Si 

Hie -I tith names ot the Advenlurers, 

Pla ICTS and Gov ernours from iheir 

frflbc^nn gAn rs-nolhis 

(relent ,6^4 

- s;....fr.te^,L*5a'Vi'™\._ , 

.MfDthe.W^ps and Dcrcnpiionsofall ihofe f 
Coiintfyes.tncirCoiiuDoaitic5, pcopl 
Govcmn,cm.Cunom«..ndF£l ^ 

-, DniDED rvTJ J7XeBoOK£S 

/'jS' L?J7iaTi/ ions SMrTWym^WmjOsixmr 
' -England 




Reduced Facsimile of the Title Page of John Smith's "Generall 
HiSTORiE of Virginia, New-England, and the Summer Isles [Ber- 
mudas]," published in London, 1624 

The portraits are of Queen Elizabeth, James I, and his son Prince Charles 
(afterward Charles I). 



some changes in the government of Virginia. A new 
charter was obtained, by which the London Company 
was allowed to appoint a governor with entire control of 



THE STRUGGLES OF JAMESTOWN 57 

the colony. Lord Delaware was made first governor. 
About five hundred settlers under Gates and Somers were 
sent from England in ten ships. The two ships contain- 
ing Gates and Somers were separated from the others by a 
storm and wrecked on the Bermuda Islands. The other 
immigrants arrived at Jamestown with no one in charge. 
They were left there, and the ships returned to England. 
On board one of these ships was the wounded Smith. 

The terrible winter of 1609-10. — The arrival of the 
new colonists without the governor or his assistants was 
unfortunate. They came at a season when little work 
could be done and supplies were short. The result was 
that before the winter was over there was nothing for the 
colonists to live upon. By the first of June not more 
than sixty were left alive. Many crimes were committed 
during that winter. After Smith left the colony, Poca- 
hontas, who had befriended him and had on several 
occasions sent provisions to the colonists, came no more 
to Jamestown with aid. In May, 1610, Sir Thomas 
Gates and Sir George Somers, having constructed two 
small ships out of the wreckage on the Bermudas, reached 
Virginia. Seeing the wretched condition of the settle- 
ment, they at once took the survivors on board and set 
out for England. Thus Jamestown was abandoned. 

The colony saved. — In the spring of 1610 Lord Dela- 
ware, the governor, sailed for Jamestown. As Gates and 
Somers, steering seaward, neared the mouth of the James 
River, they met a small boat which announced that 
Delaware had appeared between the Capes and would the 
next day reach Jamestown. Thereupon, they turned 
back; and Jamestown, which had been abandoned on 
June the seventh, was reoccupied the next day. 



58 OUR REPUBLIC 

CHAPTER XII 

THE GROWTH OF VIRGINIA 

Lord Delaware and Thomas Dale. — Under Lord Dela- 
ware, a new era was inaugurated in Virginia. The gov- 
ernor ruled well. He made everyone work regular hours 
every day, gentlemen as well as laborers. When he 
returned to England in 1611 and was succeeded by Sir 
Thomas Dale, the colony was on the road to prosperity. 
There were then six hundred settlers in Virginia. 

Dale inaugurated martial law and introduced a new 
system of working the lands. Up to his time all the 
cultivated lands were held by the colony as a whole, and 
everything was worked in common. All that was pro- 
duced went into a common storehouse and became the 
property of the company. The company, on the other 
hand, had to supply each settler with his daily provisions. 
Dale, however, decreed that every man should have a 
certain piece of ground to work by himself, and that what- 
ever he made on that should be his own. Still every man 
had to give a certain part of his time to the cultivation 
of the lands that were held by the company. 

The Princess Pocahontas. — In Dale's administration 
Pocahontas was captured and brought to Jamestown. 
While a prisoner, she was converted to Christianity and 
was baptized, assuming the Christian name, Rebecca. 
John Rolfe, one of the men who had been shipwrecked 
on the Bermuda Islands with Somers and Gates, per- 1 1 
suaded the princess to accept his hand in marriage. In 
the little wooden church which had been built at James- 



THE GROWTH OF VIRGINIA 



59 



,lil 






town there was celebrated, in 1614, the marriage of John 
Rolfe and Pocahontas. 

Soon after this Dale returned to England, and Rolfe 
and his wife went with him. The princess was received 
at court, and the story goes that King James reproved 
Rolfe for having married , , 

a prmcess without royal " 

sanction. It is said, too, 

that Pocahontas met ^'l 

John Smith and was 'k 

greatly surprised to ' 

know that he was alive. "' -iT ' ' 

She claimed that the 
settlers at Jamestown 
had said that Smith was 
dead. In 1617 Poca- 
hontas died in England, 
when she was about to 
return with her hus- 
band to America. She 
left one son, Thomas 
Rolfe, from whom many 
of the distinguished 
families of Virginia 
claim descent. 

The tobacco industry. — 
From the coming of Dale to Virginia until 1619 the col- 
ony prospered more and more. Rolfe was one of the first 
to introduce the cultivation of tobacco, the smoking of 
which had become very common in England since the time 
of Raleigh. Tobacco was soon the great commercial 
product of the colony. It was even used as money. 




The Princess Pocahontas 
After the famous portrait painted in Eng- 
land in 1616, now in Booton Hall, Nor- 
folk, England. 



60 OUR REPUBLIC 

Governor George Yeardley. — One of the most promi- 
nent governors of Virginia in colonial days was George 
Yeardley. He encouraged the cultivation of tobacco 
and the bringing over of cattle of all kinds. He saw that 
if Virginia was to grow, she must raise at home what the 
people would need. He saw, too, that no colony could 
be really important which did not have settlers who 
intended to live there permanently. When he became 
governor, the great majority of the settlers were men 
who had come to Virginia only to make money and 
then return to England. There were few women and 
children in the colony. Therefore, in order that per- 
manent homes might be built in the new land, in 1619 the 
London Company sent over a shipload of young women 
who had volunteered to come to Virginia and become wives 
of the settlers. Each colonist had to pay one hundred 
and twenty pounds of tobacco to cover the transportation 
of the young woman whom he selected for his wife. 

African slavery. — Yeardley's administration saw African 
slave labor introduced into Virginia. In 1619 a Dutch 
man-of-war brought twenty negroes to Jamestown and 
sold them to the planters. Eight of these negroes were 
bought by Governor Yeardley and sent to his plantation 
on the James River. At this time the planters had also 
a number of white servants called ''indented servants," 
who had been brought to the colony and ''indented," or 
bound to service, for a term of years. This indented serv- 
ant system grew in the colony side by side with African ■ 
slavery. After 1675 the indented servants gradually grew 
fewer, while the slaves increased rapidly in number. 

The first legislative assembly in America. — Another 
important event of Yeardley's administration was the 



THE GROWTH OF VIRGINIA 61 

calling together of the first legislative assembly that ever 
met in the New World. In 1619 there were nearly two 
thousand settlers in Virginia; so, under direction of the 
London Company, it was decreed that a legislative 
assembly should be established. The Assembly met at 
Jamestown on July 31st. It consisted of twenty-two 
representatives chosen by the people. With these sat the 
governor and his council. This first House of Burgesses 
passed laws against drunkenness, gambling, and idleness. 
It also requested the London Company to send over car- 
penters to construct a college in the colony. 

The London Company overthrown. — In 1612 the Lon- 
don Company received a new charter, which somewhat 
enlarged the rights of the company. James I unin- 
tentionally made the company free to manage Virginia 
as it pleased. When the company gave the colony a 
liberal government with a legislative assembly, the king 
was displeased. But when it refused to elect as its presi- 
dent and treasurer one of his friends, he became more 
displeased. He only awaited an opportunity to destroy 
the company. He made this opportunity when, in 1622, 
there was a terrible Indian massacre in the colony. Com- 
missioners were appointed to investigate the affairs of 
Virginia, and they reported against the management of 
the London Company. Thereupon, in 1624, King James 
caused the charter to be repealed, and Virginia became 
a province to be governed directly by the king. At 
this time the colony was prosperous despite the Indian 
uprising in 1622, when three hundred and fifty settlers 
had been killed. In 1624 the population was nearly 
four thousand, distributed among about fourteen impor- 
tant settlements. 



62 OUR REPUBLIC 

CHAPTER XIII 

VIRGINIA UNDER CHARLES I AND CROMWELL 

Twenty-five years as a royal province. — James I died 
before he had a chance to change the government of ' 
Virginia to suit himself. Charles I, his successor, finally 
allowed the same kind of government in the colony that 
had existed under the London Company, except that the 
governor and the council were to be appointed by him. 
The king, of course, owned all the land; and no one could 
have any land unless it was granted to him by the king. 
During the period from 1624 to 1642 there were several 
governors. One, Sir John Harvey, is remembered be- 
cause the Virginians did not like him. They suddenly 
rose up and put him out of office. This greatly angered 
Charles I, and he made the Virginians restore Harvey 
to the governorship. Harvey, however, found his life; 
in the colony so unpleasant that before long he went; 
back to England. In 1642 Sir William Berkeley came 
over and remained as governor ten years, until Virginia i 
passed into the hands of a new government in England. 

Charles I ruled so badly in England that his subjects ^ 
rebelled against him, and many of his followers were' 
forced to leave the country. Charles himself was seized, , 
tried for his actions, and beheaded (1649). A new gov- 
ernment, known as the Commonwealth, was imm.edi- 
ately established in England, under the direction of Oliver 
Cromwell. 

The followers of King Charles had been dubbed Cava- 
liers in England. Many of those who fled came to 



VIRGINIA UNDER CHARLES I AND CROMWELL 63 




But when 



Virginia; and this coming of the CavaUers not only 
increased very greatly the population of the colony, but 
somewhat changed its character. Eight counties had 
been established in 1634; and by 1652, on 
account of the increase of population, there 
were twenty counties. The general mode 
of living improved much during this period, 
and some brick houses and better wooden 
ones were built. 

Virginia under the Commonwealth. — The 
establishment of the Commonwealth in 
England caused a similar disturbance in 
the English colonies in America. The 
Virginians at one time thought of refusing 
to yield to the new government and talked 
of proclaiming Prince Charles their king, 
the English commissioners, headed by William Clai- 
borne and Richard Bennett, arrived in Virginia, demand- 
ing allegiance to the English Commonwealth, Governor 
Berkeley and the House of Burgesses yielded. It was 
not, however, as a conquered province, but rather as 
one country making a treaty with another; for the terms 
of Virginia's agreement with the Commonwealth were 
that the Virginia House of Burgesses should elect its 
own governors and that the colony should have free 
trade with England and the other countries of Europe. 
During the Commonwealth period, which lasted in Vir- 
ginia for eight years, three governors were elected by the 
House of Burgesses. 

The Virginians belonged chiefly to the king's party, 
though at this time there came a number of the followers 
of Oliver Cromwell. One of these was the Richard Ben- 



64 OUR REPUBLIC 

nett mentioned above, who was elected governor of the 
colony. 

The Restoration in Virginia. — When royal government 
was restored in England with Charles II, the Virginians, 
who had always been more or less loyal to him, quickly 
proclaimed him their king; and at once Sir William Berke- 
ley became governor again. In recognition of Virginia's 
loyalty to him, Charles II, it is said, dubbed the colony 
"the Old Dominion." 



CHAPTER XIV 

THE LIBERTY-LOVING VIRGINIANS 

Virginia again under royal control. — With the restora- 
tion of Charles II as king, Berkeley seemed to think that 
he might ignore all the notions of freedom that the Vir- 
ginians might have. He forgot that in 1619 the first 
House of Burgesses had talked of disregarding such acts 
of the London Company as they did not approve; and 
that in 1624 the Burgesses had said that no tax, except 
such as was approved by them, ought to be levied in 
Virginia. He forgot, too, that Governor Harvey had been 
driven out of office and forced to return to England, and 
that the Virginians had enjoyed a great deal of liberty 
during the Commonwealth. Disregarding all these facts, 
Berkeley kept the House of Burgesses elected in 1660 in 
power for sixteen years. 

The colony was being endangered by Indian attacks 
on the frontier plantations. Berkeley, however, was en- 
gaged in trade with the Indians and therefore discouraged 
every effort to put down the attacks, lest he should lose 



II 



THE LIBERTY-LOVING VIRGINIANS 



65 



the profits of his trade. Berkeley, moreover, was an 
aristocrat; that is to say, he wished only the land owners 
to vote or to hold office. In dealing with men, he was 
haughty and overbearing. He had no regard for the 
feelings of others. This made him generally hated by the 
masses of the people. 

Furthermore, the Virginians had a grievance against 
the king himself. They 
resented his policy of 
granting large tracts of 
land in the colony to his 
friends. 

Bacon's Rebellion. — 
In 1676 the Indians 
began to give addi- 
tional trouble along the 
frontier, which at that 
time was a line drawn 
at the head of the tide- 
water region. At this 
time, Nathaniel Ba- 
con, a daring young 
Englishman of educa- 
tion, raised troops to 
go against them. He 

was at first commissioned by Berkeley, but immediately 
afterward has ordered to disband his troops. Disregard- 
ing the governor, however. Bacon moved against the 
Indians and defeated them in a terrible battle. 

The affairs of the colony were in such a state that Berke- 
ley was forced to ask for the election of a new House of 
Burgesses. This House was on the whole friendly to 




Bacon, with His Forces, Demands a 
Commission to Fight the Indians 



66 OUR REPUBLIC 

Bacon, who was himself elected a delegate from Henrico. 
On reaching Jamestown, Bacon was arrested; but later 
he was pardoned by the governor and again given a 
commission to fight the Indians. No sooner, how- 
ever, had he and his army left Jamestown than he 
was a second time ordered to disband his troops. Again 
Bacon, not heeding the governor, fought the Indians. 
Then he turned back and besieged Jamestown. Berke- 
ley fled to the Eastern Shore, and Bacon and his men 
captured and burned the capital of Virginia, so that it 
might not be reoccupied by his enemies. 

The colony of Virginia, which numbered forty or fifty 
thousand people, was now sorely rent. Next-door neigh- 
bors became enemies and were ready to burn each others' 
homes and plantation houses. The followers of Berkeley 
were especially strong in Gloucester County. Bacon 
went there to put them down, but was taken ill with fever 
and died. With their leader dead. Bacon's army was 
easily conquered. Berkeley ordered twenty-two of Bacon's 
''rebels" to be hanged. This so enraged Charles II 
that he recalled the old governor to England, where soon 
after Berkeley died a broken-hearted man. The king is 
said to have remarked, ''That old fool put to death more 
men in that barren colony than I did for the death of 
my father." 

Virginia in 1700. — At the time of Bacon's RebelHon, 
settlements had gone no farther west than tidewater. By 
1700 there were probably seventy-five thousand people in 
Virginia, fifteen thousand of whom were slaves and twenty 
thousand indented servants. There were few schools, 
and these were conducted chiefly by ministers of the 
Church of England, the estabhshed church in the colony. 



li 



THE PLYMOUTH COLONY 



6: 



The rich planters, however, were generally well educated 
for that day, many of them having been taught by tutors 
at home, and some having at- 
tended the colleges in England. 

In 1693 the College of WiUiam 
and Mary was established, and 
soon it came to be an important 
institution. 

In 1710 Alexander Spotswood 
was appointed governor of the 
colony. He encouraged the iron 
industry and established several 
foundries. Under his direction 
the Blue Ridge Mountains were 
crossed and the Shenandoah 
Valley explored. In a few years 
settlers went into the western valleys and the mountain 
regions, and by 1750 Virginia was well settled to the 
foot of the Alleghany Mountains. 




Alexander Spotswood 



CHAPTER XV 

THE PLYMOUTH COLONY 



The Pilgrims. — It happened that Virginia was colonized 
as a great commercial enterprise. Quite other causes 
were responsible for the settlement of New England. 
In the reign of Elizabeth, the Church of England was 
divided. Some of its members had begun to disapprove 
both its government and the way in which its services 
were conducted. Of this number some separated from 
the church, or would not attend worship held accord- 



68 OUR REPUBLIC 

ing to its ritual. These were called Independents or 
Separatists, and were persecuted for their religious 
beliefs. 

There was a small congregation of Independents in the 
town of Scrooby in western England. After they had 
endured not a Uttle persecution, they moved to Holland. 
In Holland this little body of Christians could worship 
God as they liked; but they were Enghsh at heart and 
did not want to see their children brought up to speak 
Dutch and to lose their identity as Enghsh people. 
Therefore they appealed to the London Company and 
received a grant of land in America. Those who were 
to go in the first shiploads crossed to England and set 
out for the New World in two vessels, the Mayflower 
and the Speedwell. The latter became disabled and 
had to return; but the Mayflower continued its course 
and, after a rough voyage, reached the North American 
shore. 

Plymouth established. — It was December 21, 1620, 
when finally the Pilgrims, as these wanderers were called, 
reached the harbor which they called " New Plymouth." 
On Captain John Smith's famous map the region had al- 
ready been named "New England." The rough winds 
had driven them farther north than they had expected to 
go, so they had failed to find the settlements of the London 
Company in Virginia. Before going ashore, they drew 
up a contract, known as the "Mayflower Compact," 
agreeing to abide by the rule of a majority of their num- 
ber. John Carver was elected first governor. It was a 
terrible undertaking to plant a colony in a bleak northern 
climate in the dead of winter. But, with brave hearts, 
they built rude huts and ' shaped a little town. The 



THE PLYMOUTH COLONY 69 

weather throughout that winter was so cold that many 
died from exposure. One of these was Governor Carver. 
WiHiam Bradford was elected his successor. 

Miles Standish. — The Indians proved unfriendly; but 
fortunately for the colony it had for its leader a good 
soldier, Captain Miles Standish. He is said to have 
been a little man with sandy hair and a high temper, but 
of undoubted bravery. His wife died the first winter, 
but his faith in his cause only made him more determined. 




Watching the "Mayflower" Sail Back to England, Spring of 1621 
After the painting by Bayes. 

At one time, when the Indians were harassing the colony, 
Standish with nine men conquered the largest village of 
the unfriendly tribe and forced them to make peace with 
the colonists. The Indians feared Captain Standish and 
tried repeatedly to capture him; but he was so shrewd 
that all the neighboring Indian tribes finally made peace 
with the settlers at Plymouth. 

The first American Thanksgiving feast. — With the 
coming of spring, 1621, the settlers took new courage. 



70 



OUR REPUBLIC 



They learned from the Indians how to grow corn, and the 
weather proved favorable to all their plantings. In the 
fall when they had gathered their crops, they kept, ac- 
cording to their custom, a day of thanksgiving for God's 
blessing on their efforts. And this time, at the suggestion 
of Governor Bradford, they held a feast to mark with 
special neighborliness the gratitude they felt. To this 

feast they invited 
Massasoit, the chief 
of the friendly Indi- 
ans, and a number of 
his braves. 1 

The growth of Plym- 
outh. — Bradford re- 
mained governor of 
Plymouth thirty-one 
years. The settlers 
secured from the old 
Plymouth Company 
a grant of a small 
tract of land in what 
is now eastern Massachusetts. Other settlers soon joined 
them, and in four or five years the Pilgrim fathers of 
Plymouth were prospering. In this colony they wor- 
shiped God according to their beliefs. Strange to say, 
just as the Church of England had persecuted them, so 
they in turn sent from their midst any who differed from 
them in their religious opinions. 

' For this first American Thanksgiving feast, a party of hunters had 
killed many wild turkeys and a number of deer. The feast lasted three 
days, and ninety Indians were present. Many outdoor sports were held 
with friendly contests between the settlers and the Indians. 




Governor Bradford's House at Plymouth 

The house and gardens are fenced in by a high 

stockade as protection against the Indians. 



I 



THE MASSACHUSETTS BAY COLONY 71 

The Pilgrims were a frugal people, and very industrious. 
When they came to America, they had borrowed money 
from the London merchants; but in seven years, by 
perseverance, they had shipped to England enough 
lumber, fur, and fish to pay their debt. By 1643 the 
colony had about three thousand people and seven or 
eight towns. Following the example of Virginia, they 
established a General Assembly, in which every town had 
two representatives. In 1691 Plymouth was made a 
part of the neighboring colony of Massachusetts Bay. 



CHAPTER XVI 

THE MASSACHUSETTS BAY COLONY 

The Puritans. — Among the disapproving members of 
the English Church were some who wished to '^purify" 
it by abolishing all its forms and ceremonies. These 
people were called Puritans. They had not left the 
church, but were not satisfied with it. Some of them, 
therefore, sought new homes where they might have 
opportunity to worship according to their own ideas. 
As early as 1628 some of the Puritans had settled in what 
is now Massachusetts, at Salem. Their leaders had 
secured from the old Plymouth Company the grant of 
a strip of land lying between the Charles and Merrimac 
rivers. To develop this territory they organized a com- 
pany, which was chartered by the king. It was known 
as the Company of the Massachusetts Bay in New Eng- 
land. 

Later settlements in Massachusetts. — Soon settlers in 
numbers came over and established Boston, Cambridge, 



OUR REPUBLIC 




John Endicott 
After the original portrait. 



and other towns. In two or three years a thousand or 

fifteen hundred men, women, and children had arrived. 

The Massachusetts Bay Com- 
I tany, unexpectedly to the king 
,nd the people of England, 
jQoved over as a company, 
• •ringing all their officers with 
them. Thus they slipped out 
Irom under the control of the 
I English king. Before long the 
lowns formed by the Puritans 
were known as Massachusetts 
Bay, later as Massachusetts. 

The prime movers in the 
settlement of Massachusetts 
were John Endicott and John 

Winthrop. For a number of years Winthrop was gov- 
ernor of the colony. Under his 

influence the Puritans gave up 

their connection with the Church 

of England and established a new 

church. This grew into what is 

now known as the Congregational 

Church. The church controlled 

the government of the colony, as 

only church members could vote 

or hold office. 

Government of Massachusetts. — 

With the establishment of a num- 
ber of small towns, it was necessary 

to have some form of town government 

was the township system 




John Winthrop 

After the portrait in the 

Massachusetts Senate 

Chamber. 



The one adopted 
Under this system, all the 



I 



THE MASSACHUSETTS BAY COLONY 



73 



church members in a town met together to pass such laws 
as might be needed for their government. At this meet- 
ing they also elected the town officers. This township 
system, somewhat changed, is now found in many parts 
of the United States. For the general management of 
the colony, a system was introduced not unlike the one 
in Virginia — a General Assembly or general court, to which 
delegates were elected 
from each town. In this 
Assembly sat also the 
governor and his "as- 
sistants," or councilors. 

Religious troubles. — 
Since Massachusetts was 
a colony controlled by a 
religious denomination, 
the laws were very strict. 
No man was allowed to 
be absent from church 
on Sunday. If a man 
used a blasphemous word, 
he was branded on the forehead. In church a woman, if 
she went to sleep, was waked by being tickled around 
her ears with a squirrel's tail; but men and boys were 
aroused by a sharp stick or a deer's hoof fastened to the 
end of a long pole. A liar was punished by being put in 
the stocks. Scolding women were tied in a ducking stool 
and let down into the water. 

Naturally there were some men who did not believe 
as the Puritans wished. One of these was Roger Williams, 
the minister who had charge of the church at Salem. 
He did not believe in harsh laws. Moreover, he thought 




Puritans returning from Church 



74 



OUR REPUBLIC 




The First Church 
AT Salem 



that every man should be allowed to follow his own 
religious convictions, and that men, whether church 
members or not, should be allowed to vote. For hold- 
ing such views, Williams was tried. 
It was ordered that he should be sent 
out of the colony, but he escaped into 
the wilderness. 

About the time that Williams fled 
from the colony, there came to Bos- 
ton a clever, strong-minded woman, 
Mrs. Anne Hutchinson. She freely 
criticised the preachers of the town, 
and soon large crowds flocked to hear her. Her doc- 
trines were in conflict with those of the Puritans; and two 
years after Williams fled from Massachusetts, she also 
was banished. 

Massachusetts a permanent home. — The first settlers 
of Virginia had come to gather wealth and expected to 
return to England. This was not the case with the Puri- 
tans. Consequently, when they settled in Massachu- 
setts, they went to work to establish permanent homes 
and to build up such industries as would help them gain 
a livelihood. 

Ships began to carry dried fish from the New Eng- 
land coast to Spain and Portugal. Frequently these 
ships went to the South African coast and would bring 
back cargoes of slaves. These slaves were disposed of 
in the West Indies or in the English colonies of the South, 
or were brought north. When the slaves were sold in 
the West Indies, the ships returned to New England with 
cargoes of molasses to be converted into rum. The rum 
would be sold to the other colonies. Before the seven- 



THE EXPANSION OF NEW ENGLAND 75 

teenth century had closed, the New Englanders had ships 
engaged in trade in many directions. 

As soon as they had well established their towns, the 
people of New England founded a college. There could 
have been no stronger proof of their intention to remain 
in America. The college was named Harvard College 
in honor of John Harvard, who had left his library and 
a sum of money to the institution. The colony passed 
a law requiring every town that had fifty families to sup- 
port a primary school, and every town of one hundred 
families, a grammar school. The ministers as a rule 
were well educated, many of them being graduates of 
the English universities; but as Harvard College grew, 
the young men of the colony were educated there. 

The progress of Massachusetts was, therefore, very 
rapid. In twelve years from its first settlement, it num- 
bered nearly twenty-five thousand people. 



CHAPTER XVII 

THE EXPANSION OF NEW ENGLAND 
1. Rhode Island 

Roger Williams plants a colony. — Roger Williams, as 
you have read, fled from Massachusetts because of re- 
ligious persecution. It was then the dead of winter. 
The snow was knee deep ; but with grit and determination 
he pressed through the wilderness southward from Boston. 
When he came to the Seekonk — now the Providence — 
River, he went to the wigwam of Massasoit, the old 
chief who had been friendly to the settlers at Plymouth. 



76 



OUR REPUBLIC 



It was not long before Williams was joined by some of 
his friends who believed as he did, and together they 
journeyed down the stream, beyond the boundaries of 
the Plymouth colony. When they reached the territory 
of the Narragansett Indians, they purchased a tract of 




Roger Williams Received into the Land of the Narragansetts 

land and began a settlement (1636), which they called 
Providence. 

Settlements by Mrs. Anne Hutchinson and others. — - 
When Mrs. Anne Hutchinson (page 74) was driven from 
Massachusetts, she too went south to Portsmouth which 
had been founded by some of her followers (1637). Two 
years later, a settlement was made at Newport. These 
two settlements and Providence were finally united (1644) 
by a charter, which Roger Williams obtained from the 
English government. This charter established the colony 
that later became the State of Rhode Island. 

The government of Rhode Island. — The charter that 
Williams received was a liberal one. The people were to 



THE EXPANSION OF NEW ENGLAND 77 

govern themselves. Williams, however, was the real 
ruler. Everyone agreed to abide by the rule of the 
majority. It was also determined that there should be 
no established church and that the people should not be 
taxed to support any church. In other words, there was 
to be religious freedom. All men over twenty-one years 
of age were to have the right to vote, no matter what 
their religious beliefs. This scheme was quite different 
from that of Massachusetts. Yet this very idea of not 
basing on church membership the right to participate 
in government is what everyone in the United States now 
believes in. Rhode Island was the first colony to have 
entire religious freedom. 

Under the government established by Williams, Rhode 
Island grew, and the people lived in peace with their 
! neighbors, developing industries and acquiring wealth. 



2. Connecticut 

Conflict between the English and the Dutch. — Since 
the discovery by Henry Hudson, the Dutch had been 
settling the Hudson valley. Gradually they had been 
extending their settlements eastward, claiming like- 
wise the lands along the Connecticut River. In 1633 
they built a fort on the Connecticut River and began 
trading with the Indians. But the people of Massachu- 
setts and Plymouth also claimed the Connecticut valley, 
and at once sent settlers into the region. The Dutch, 
however, drove them out. In 1635, under the direction 
of two Enghsh nobles. Lord Saye and Sele and Lord 
Brook, young Winthrop, a son of Governor Winthrop of 
Massachusetts, estabhshed a colony near the mouth of 
the Connecticut River. He called it Fort Saybrook. 



78 



OUR REPUBLIC 



The Dutch were driven away from the Connecticut region ; 
and, though they tried again and again to reoccupy the 
country, the EngHsh succeeded in keeping them out. 




The Colonies of New England 



Thomas Hooker. — The people of Massachusetts grad- 
ually moved westward. Settlers from Massachusetts 
established the town of Windsor on the Connecticut 
River (1635), and a little later others came and farther|- 
down the stream built Wethersfield. j 

Following these, many inhabitants of Cambridge then] 
sold their homes (1636) and, under the direction of their f 
pastor, Thomas Hooker, moved to the Connecticut 



THE EXPANSION OF NEW ENGLAND 79 

valley. Hooker's view was not unlike Williams's, in that 
he held that all men should have a voice in their own 
government. On the other hand, he believed that the 
Congregational Church should be the established church 
supported by taxation. About one hundred people fol- 
lowed Hooker through the wilderness, taking with them 
their cattle, horses, and such personal property as they 
could carry. They settled at Hartford. Around this 
settlement the colony of Connecticut was built. 

Connecticut's constitution. — These three towns — Hart- 
ford, Wethersfield, and Windsor — drew up a written 
constitution (1639), providing for a government entirely 
by the people. Every free man in the colony was given 
the right to vote. An interesting thing about this con- 
stitution of Connecticut is that it contained no reference 
to the king. It was made by the people who were to be 
governed by it. No other colony had as yet made for 
itself, independently of king, proprietor, or church, such 
a code of laws. For this reason it is sometimes called 
the first written constitution of America. 

Trouble with the Indians. — Hardly had the English 
planted themselves in Connecticut before they were at 
war with the Indians. A powerful tribe, the Pequots, 
lived in the eastern part of Connecticut. When they saw 
the English occupying their lands, they started out to 
burn and pillage. The Connecticut colony raised an 
army of one hundred men and placed it under the direc- 
tion of Captain John Mason (1637). Surprising a pali- 
saded village in which there were seven hundred Indians, 
he set fire to it. Nearly all the Indians perished in the 
flames or were shot down. From this time Connecticut 
grew rapidly, and many small towns were established. 



80 



OUR REPUBLIC 




3. The New Haven Colony 

John Davenport. — At the close of the Pequot War 
there came from England a Puritan minister with his en- 
tire congregation. He believed that in every government 
the laws should be based entirely upon the Bible. There- 
fore, none of the New England colonies were satisfactory 

to him. So he settled (1638) 
south of the Connecticut colony 
on Long Island Sound and 
built the town of New Haven. 
By agreement, the colony was 
to be governed entirely by laws 
based on the Old Testament. 
Since trial by jury was not to 
be found in the Bible, it was 
not allowed in New Haven. 
Everything was centered 
around the church, and gov- 
ernment and church were more 
closely united in the New 
Haven colony than anywhere 
else in New England. By 1643 there were a number of 
towns in Davenport's colony. 

When, shortly after Cromwell's death, Charles II was 
restored to the throne of England (1660), he found that 
two members of the court that had put Charles I to 
death had fled to New Haven and were being harbored 
there. This so angered the king that he made New 
Haven a part of Connecticut (1662). Thus the colony 
lost its independence, and was thereafter governed under 
Connecticut's liberal constitution. 



A Suggestion from England 
Showing how " a godly dissent- 
ing brother " may greet pleas- 
antly a "godly brother" of 
different belief. — From a pam- 
phlet of 1646, making a plea 
for harmony. 



IJ 



UNITED COLONIES OF NEW ENGLAND 81 

4. New Hampshire and Maine 

John Mason and Ferdinando Gorges. — After the Plym- 
outh Company i failed to make a settlement in New 
England, James I granted (1623) all the country from the 
Merrimac River northward to the Kennebec and west- 
ward as far as Lake George to two. friends, John Mason 
and Ferdinando Gorges. Settlements were soon estab- 
lished at what are now Portsmouth and Dover in New 
Hampshire. The colonists were much like the early 
settlers of Virginia — not religious dissenters, but mem- 
bers of the English Church trying to establish a com- 
mercial enterprise. 

A few years later (1629), Mason and Gorges divided 
their grants. Mason taking what is now New Hamp- 
shire, and Gorges taking what is now Maine. On the 
death of Mason, New Hampshire passed, after some 
turmoil, into the hands of Massachusetts (1641). 
Eleven years after that, Massachusetts bought the claim 
of Gorges to Maine. The territory of Massachusetts 
was now many times its original extent. When the 
transfers were made, there were not many inhabitants 
in either Maine or New Hampshire-^in Maine, only a 
few fishing stations and trading posts, and in New Hamp- 
shire but four or five towns. 

CHAPTER XVIII 

THE UNITED COLONIES OF NEW ENGLAND 

New England as a whole. — Except for the few settlers 
in New Hampshire and Maine, the character of the peo- 
ple throughout New England was much the same. They 



82 



OUR REPUBLIC 




differed somewhat among themselves in rehgious behef; 
but they were all opposed to the Church of England. 
They were all agreed in wishing to be free as far as possible 

from the Enghsh Government. 
It is true, however, that the 
religious freedom established in 
Rhode Island was not pleasing 
to the other colonies, and that 
at times Rhode Island was 
ignored by the rest of New Eng- 
land. 

New England Confederation. — 
In 1643 the colonies of Mas- 
sachusetts, Plymouth, Connecti- 
cut, and New Haven formed a 
union under the title of the 
United Colonies of New Eng- 
land. New Hampshire and Maine were included in this 
union because they were at this time a part of Mas- 
sachusetts. Rhode Island was left out because it did 
not support the Congregational Church as the established 
church of the colony. The object of this union was pro- 
tection against the Indians, against the Dutch, and 
against the French. The Dutch were troubling the set- 
tlers in the Connecticut valley. The French had settled 
along the St. Lawrence River and were pushing into 
northern New England. The government of this union 
was placed in the hands of commissioners, two from each 
colony, who were to decide what important matters the 
united colonies should undertake together. 

Attitude toward the Indians. — All the later New 
England colonies followed in the steps of Massachusetts 



Charles I, King of England 

1625-1649 
After a portrait by Van Dyke. 



UNITED COLONIES OF NEW ENGLAND 



83 



«?.! 



lMsMS5HMSMlMmi»M 



wrNNEETl-liAN 



IIUP-BIBLUM GODI- 



Tf:STAMnNTi 



SNUKKONt: 

WllSKU TEstAMEKT. 



ii TOHN ELIOT- '§ 



I^'-tfCiiOjpiufljpe 5*/^w 



■ IJ. ,l/»-.Mf f'*"** 



SI 



in providing means for educating their children; and 
not only their children, but the Indians around them. 
There came to Massachusetts the Reverend John Eliot, 
a devout man, who went among 
the Indians preaching Chris- 
tianity. It is said that at one 
time in New England there were 
four thousand Indians who had 
given up their superstitions and 
accepted the Christian beliefs. 
Eliot wished to have these In- 
dians taught, and planned to 
establish schools for them. He 
accomplished the stupendous 
work of translating the Bible 
into their language. John Eliot 
has been fitly called the Apostle 
to the Indians. 

Twenty years of independent 
growth. — For about twenty years 
after the establishment of the 
New England Confederation, the 
colonies of New England gov- 
erned themselves without any 
interference from England. For 
the first six years of this period, Charles I was at war 
with his subjects in England and could pay no attention 
to the American colonies. For eleven years follow- 
ing the execution of the king (1649-1660), Oliver 
Cromwell and the Puritans ruled England as a rep- 
resentative government, or commonwealth. They were 
in sympathy with the settlers of New England and 



»»ffl«rirftw^k?-«Tf?yeff!ffffly< 




Title Page of Eliot's 
Indian Bible 
Translation: " The whole Holy 
Bible of God, both Old Tes- 
tament and also New Testa- 
ment. This translated by the 
Servant of Christ who is 
called John Eliot. Cam- 
bridge: Printed by Samu:! 
Green and Marmaduke John- 
son, 1663." 



84 



OUR REPUBLIC 



iiil 


i^HHHH 


llpfl 


Hpi^^^HI 


,IJ>,T IJJJBH 


^H^^ ^^^H|nuD| 


nUlH 


IF .i^^Hini 


MipI^H 


m '^^ iBt^K^Bi 


fl^l 


■ "^"^ ' ^^^^^^B^ 


M 


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1 


w "T^^^^^HB 



interfered but little in their affairs. Thus the people of 
New England came to feel that they were almost inde- 
pendent. They had united themselves without consult- 
ing the Government in England, and 
they felt that the Confederacy would 
be fully able to manage its own 
affairs. They could enforce their 
own laws without first sending 
them over to England to be ap- 
proved, as the Virginia Assembly 
was obliged to do. They could 
coin their own money without per- 
mission from the English Govern- 
ment. The shilling that Massa- 
chusetts coined bore the picture of a 
pine tree. A ''pine-tree shilling," 
as it was called, is to-day a rare 
coin and worth a great deal of money. 
Attitude toward Quakers. — The laws of Massachusetts 
were severe against Quakers. These people were at first 
sent out of the colony, 
but many returned. It 
was then enacted that 
their ears should be cut 
off; later, that every Qua- 
ker who would not stay 
out of the colony should 
be put to death. In Bos- 
ton one woman and three men of this sect were hanged. 
The Quakers thought it their duty to preach freedom of 
worship; and this, to the authorities of Massachusetts, 
seemed like preaching anarchy. 



Oliver Cromwell 
Leader of the English 
Commonwealth 
1649-1658 
Aiter a painting by Sam- 
uel Cooper, in the Uni- 
versity of Cambridge, 
England. 




A Pine-Tree Shilling 



NEW ENGLAND UNDER CHARLES II 85 

CHAPTER XIX 

NEW ENGLAND UNDER CHARLES II AND JAMES II 

Charles II's interference. — When Charles II became 
King of England, his feeling was hostile to the New Eng- 
land colonists. Though England herself persecuted the 
Quakers, Charles felt that Massachusetts had gone too 
far and ordered that in New England no more Quakers 
should be put to death. The king had good reason to 
dislike Puritans; and he thought that the rebels in Eng- 
land who had overthrown his father's government had 
been encouraged by the Puritans across the sea. Fur- 
thermore, New England was now a harbor for rebel 
refugees. It was Charles's intention to punish all who 
had served in the court that had condemned his father 
to death. Two of these men, Edward Whaley and 
William Goffe, had escaped to New England, avoided 
arrest in Boston, and been concealed in New Haven (page 
80). The spirit of independence, thought the king, was 
growing too strong. 

How the king treated Massachusetts. — Charles did not 
interfere with the charter of Massachusetts, but he de- 
manded that certain laws should be changed: first, 
that the right to vote should not be restricted to church 
members, and that worship according to the rites of the 
Church of England should be allowed ; second, that all the 
people of Massachusetts should take the oath of allegiance 
to him as their king. The people of Massachusetts com- 
plied in only a half-hearted way with the instructions of 
their king. Fortunately for Massachusetts, Charles was 



86 



OUR REPUBLIC 



engaged in a war with Holland and, for the time at 
least, thought it better not to force the colony into 
open rebellion. 

The charters of Connecticut and Rhode Island. — The 
Connecticut colony, realizing that it might be politic 
to try to please the king, made application for a royal 
charter. This pleased the king so much that the 
charter he gave Connecticut (1662) was a most liberal 
one. The colonists were allowed all the liberties that 
they had previously enjoyed. They could elect their 
own governor and their own officials, and they did not 
have to send their laws to England for approval. More- 
over, the boundaries of the colony were extended by the 
addition of the New Haven colony, which had so displeased 
the king (pages 80, 85.) Thus the Connecticut of to-day 
was created. This charter of 1662 was so satisfactory 
to the people that no change was made in it until 1818. 

On the petition of Roger 
Williams a charter was granted to 
Rhode Island similar to the one 
given Connecticut. And this char- 
ter, too, created such good govern- 
ment that it was 1842 before Rhode 
Island found need to change it. 

King Philip's War.— In 1675 oc- 
curred a general uprising of the 
Indians of New England. It was 
headed by King Philip. He was 
a son of Massasoit, the chief who 
as long as he lived had been a friend of the English. 
King Philip invaded the Plymouth colony and burned 
several small villages. At once the commissioners of 




King Philip, Chief of 

THE WaMPANOAGS 



NEW ENGLAND UNDER JAMES II 



87 



the New England Confederation met, raised an army, 
and prepared to attack the Indians in their strong- 
hold in Rhode Island. This stronghold was an in- 
closure surrounded by a stockade of logs, within which 
the Indians had placed their wigwams and moved 
their families for the winter. The white men surprised 
the fort by a sudden attack, and set it on fire. One 
thousand of the Indians were killed. King Philip was 
able to escape and to carry on the war a short time 
longer; but after a year he was killed, and the Indians 
scattered in all directions. His sons were taken prisoners 
and sold into slavery. It had been a severe struggle; 
for during the course of one year, more than twelve of the 
New England towns had been destroyed, and nearly fifty 
had suffered from Indian attack. 

Andros sent to New England. — • 
The time had come when the people 
of Massachusetts were to pay the 
price of disobedience to their king. 
You remember how they had hesi- 
tated to alter their laws (page 85). 
For a time Charles II took no 
steps to force them. But in 1679 
he showed that he had not forgotten 
the incident; for he took New 
Hampshire from Massachusetts 
and made it a royal province. His 
second step was to revoke the 
charter of Massachusetts and make 

that, too, a royal province (1684). Hardly had this been 
done when Charles died. 

His brother, James II, pursued the same policy of trying 




Sir Edmund Andros 
After the portrait in the 
State Library at Hart- 
ford. 



88 OUR REPUBLIC 

to humble and restrain the colonies. He determined to 
unite them all under one governor. To carry out this plan, 
he sent Sir Edmund Andros to New England (1686). 
Rhode Island was forced to surrender its charter. But Con- 
necticut refused to do so, and Andros went to Hartford to 
demand the charter. It is said that as the General Assem- 
bly, or General Court as it was called, of Connecticut was 
debating the matter, a member blew out the lights, seized 
the charter, and rushed out and hid it in an oak. This tree 
was for many years preserved in Hartford and pointed 
out as the '^ charter oak. " Andros was made governor of 
New Jersey and New York ; and Boston was made the 
capital, as it were, of all the territory that he governed. 

About this time, 1688, there was another rebellion in 
England, and James II was driven from the throne. 
Thereupon the people of Boston put Andros into prison, 
and the different New England colonies began to rule 
themselves as they had done before his coming. 



CHAPTER XX 

NEW ENGLAND UNDER WILLIAM AND MARY 

King William readjusts matters in New England. — • 
As soon as political affairs had been straightened out in 
England, and King William and Queen Mary were 
reigning, New England received the attention of the 
king. William appreciated the friendship that the New 
Englanders had shown him; but on the other hand he 
knew the unruly spirit of the New Englanders, especially 
of those in Massachusetts. Therefore, he did not restore 
to Massachusetts the same charter that it had had before 



NEW ENGLAND UNDER WILLIAM AND MARY 89 

the coming of Andros, but gave it a new one. The new 
charter granted to all freemen the right to vote; but it 
reserved to the crown of England the right to veto any 
law passed by the General Court of Massachusetts, and 
it specified that the governor of Massachusetts must be 
appointed by the crown. 

Needless to say, the charter was very distasteful to 
the people. Somewhat to make amends for it, William 





William I and Queen Mary, Sovereigns op England 1GS9-1702 
After portraits by Sir Godfrey Kneller, at Kensington Palace. 

annexed to Massachusetts the Plymouth colony. He 
allowed Massachusetts to keep Maine, but he did not 
return the territory of New Hampshire. That he kept as 
a royal province. 

To Connecticut and Rhode Island he restored the 
charters granted by Charles II. 

The political divisions of New England as King William 
adjusted them remained fixed as long as the colonies 
continued to be provinces of England. 

Salem witchcraft. — By 1700 New England as a whole 
was no longer troubled by friction between religious 
sects. It had been forced by the English Government 



90 



OUR REPUBLIC 



t 



to give up religious persecution. The harsh spirit of 
the first Puritans had gradually been softened in their 
descendants. Shortly before 1700, however, some of the 
people had worked themselves into a strange state of mind 
that was at that time common in some parts of Europe. 
That is, they believed in witchcraft. In Salem almost 
the whole town was excited by this religious frenzy. 

A witch, they thought, 
was a special agent of the 
devil. All the troubles 
that had come upon them, 
they said, were caused by 
wicked witches who lived 
among them. Many a 
poor old woman was ac- 
cused of being a witch. 
All told, no less than 
nineteen persons were 
put to death. Finally, 
those who were respon- 
sible for the persecu- 
tion realized the terrible 
crime they had com- 
mitted. Some made 
open confession of their 
mistake, whereupon the 
witchcraft delusion was 
over. 

New England in 1700. 
— At the close of the seventeenth century New England 
was in great prosperity. More and more merchantme 
were pushing across the sea. They were trading with Spai 



g THE 

IPRlMERf 

I ENLAaOEDs J 

% Otf' «n eafV and ple^fant ^ 

^ Guide to the Artof Reading. * 
Adorn'd whU Cuts, A% 

To xi)Veh crt added, ^ 

f The Aflembly of Divines. ^ 

fand Mr. Cotton's •& 
CATECHISM, && I 






if s 
FfUtcd by E 



T O N: 
DaArFR. 



forB. 



Larkih, in Cera hill. 



Title Page of an Eighteenth Century 
Edition of the " New England 
Primer" 
The chief reading and spelling book in the 
colonies from about 1690 to 1800. Fac- 
simile but slightly reduced from original 
size. 



THE SETTLEMENT OF MARYLAND 91 

and Portugal in fish, with Africa in slaves, with the West 
Indies in molasses, and with the southern English colonies 
in rum and cereals. Each year more ships were built, and 
gradually the foundation was being laid for manufacturing 
enterprises. The forests of Massachusetts did not furnish 
so much lumber and fuel as were needed, but ships soon 
brought wood in plenty from Maine. In the early days 
Boston had suffered severely for want of wood to burn. 
The people lived simply. Their laws even forbade them 
to wear fine clothes. 

Nearly all the boys were sent to school. The girls, 
however, were not, as a rule, taught much from books. 
It was thought that learning would keep a girl from 
becoming a good housekeeper. School lasted from seven 
o'clock to eleven in the morning, when the children were 
given a two hours' recess. They came back at one and 
I stayed till four. The subjects taught were reading, 
writing, spelling, and ciphering. The Bible was the 
chief reading book. 

In 1700 the population of New England was probably 
about one hundred and five thousand. Of this number 
about five thousand were African slaves. 



CHAPTER XXI 

THE SETTLEMENT OF MARYLAND 

English settlements in 1633. — Before 1633 only three 
Enghsh colonies had been established in America. The 
first was Virginia (1607); the second was Plymouth 
(1620); the third was Massachusetts (1628). The re- 
lation of all the New England colonies with one another 



92 



OUR REPUBLIC 



was so close that we naturally think of the growth of 
New England as a whole, even though some of her colo- 
nies were settled later than colonies farther south. The 
fourth settlement of the English in America was Mary- 
land. 

Lord Baltimore. — In the time of King James I there 
lived in England a good Catholic named George Cal- 
vert. Because of his statesmanship he was much admired 
by the king, who made him Lord 
Baltimore. At that time the Eng- 
lish Government did not allow 
Catholics freedom in religious wor- 
ship; so Lord Baltimore thought it 
would be well to form a colony in 
the New World, where Catholics 
could live and worship as they 
pleased. 

With this in view he visited Vir- 
ginia, exploring the country along 
Chesapeake Bay. When he re- 
turned to England, he secured from 
Charles I, then reigning, a grant of land north of the 
Potomac River. This country he called Maryland in 
honor of the queen, Henrietta Maria. His charter was 
a liberal one. It made him ruler and owner of the prov- 
ince with the understanding that he should grant to the 
king one-fifth of the gold found in the province and should 
pay yearly to him a tribute of two Indian arrows at 
Easter time. 

Maryland a proprietary colony. — Maryland was the 
first permanent colony in America to receive a charter 
in which its founder was declared the owner, or ''pro- 




George Calvert, First 
Lord Baltimore 



THE SETTLEMENT OF MARYLAND 



93 



prietor." Hence Maryland was known as a "propri- 
etary colony." In a royal province such as Virginia 
the governor and the members of the council were appoint- 
ed by the king, to whom all the laws were submitted for 
approval. In a proprietary the 
proprietor was himself king, as 
it were. He appointed the gov- 
ernor and members of the coun- 
cil, and to him the colony had 
to submit its laws for ap- 
proval. 

Maryland settled, 1634. — The 
first Lord Baltimore died before 
he could carry out his plans. 
His son, Cecil Calvert, the 
second Lord Baltimore, pro- 
ceeded to fulfill his father's 
wishes by sending over about 
one hundred settlers. Most of 
them were Catholics, but there 

were a few Protestants. They disembarked on the west- 
ern shore of Chesapeake Bay, in what is now St. Mary's 
County, and began a settlement there. They bought 
the land from the Indians, who in this region were 
tillers of the soil. The land proved fertile, and during 
the first summer the colonists raised a goodly crop of 
corn. Game was plentiful, too; so the early Marylanders 
did not undergo the same hardships as the first settlers 
of Virginia and New England. 

Religious toleration. — The second Lord Baltimore was 
a liberal man; and he instructed Leonard Calvert, his 
brother, whom he sent over as governor, to establish 




Cecil Calvert, Second Lord 

Baltimore 

After a portrait dated 1657. 



94 



OUR REPUBLIC 



religious toleration. In fifteen years, as many Prot- 
estants as Catholics had come into the colony. In 
1649, the General Assembly of Maryland passed a law 
known as the Toleration Act, which decreed that no 
Christian should be disturbed because of his religious 
belief. This Act has often been quoted; for it showed 




Governor Calvert Buying Land from the Indians 

From the frieze in the Baltimore Court House. By courtesy of 

the artist, Mr. C. Y. Turner. 

the broad spirit of Lord Baltimore and the early settlers 
of Maryland. The mother country had at that time 
no such liberal law. 

Troubles between Maryland and Virginia. — William 
Claiborne and a number of Virginians had estabhshed 
a colony on Kent Island in Chesapeake Bay, under a 
charter secured before Maryland was settled. The 
boundaries of Maryland, as given in Lord Baltimore's 



THE SETTLEMENT OF MARYLAND 



95 



charter, included Kent Island. Claiborne, however, 
claimed that Lord Baltimore had no rights in the island 
because Lord Baltimore's charter, in designating the 
boundaries, had said that he should have authority only 
over uninhabited lands. According to Claiborne's view, 
Kent Island was already inhabited and was not, there- 
fore, a part of Maryland. A year after the Maryland 
colony was planted, the settlers, by Governor Leonard 




The Maryland Grant and Settlements 

Calvert's instructions, seized the island. Claiborne ap- 
pealed to the English Government, but the decision 
was in favor of Maryland's claim. 

When England was torn by the civil war between 
Charles I and his subjects, Claiborne made one more effort 
to secure his possession. He found that the Puritans 
of Maryland were about to rise in rebellion against the 
proprietor, so he interested them in his cause and by their 
aid seized Kent Island. The rebels were so strong that 
they even captured St. Mary's and drove Governor 



96 OUR REPUBLIC 

Calvert from the colony. But a year later, 1646, Calvert 
returned and regained control of Maryland. Claiborne 
was forced to give up Kent Island; and when Cromwell 
became Lord Protector, he decided for once and all that 
Claiborne had no right to Kent Island. 



CHAPTER XXII 

GOVERNMENT AND PROGRESS OF MARYLAND, 1G49-1700 

Maryland under the English Commonwealth. — When 
the Toleration Act was passed, there were already many 
Puritans in Maryland. Soon others came; and several 
settlements were made, among them one at Annapolis, 
which afterwards became the capital of Maryland. With 
the establishment of the Commonwealth in England 
under the rule of Oliver Cromwell, the Puritans of 
Maryland determined to overthrow Lord Baltimore 
and to deprive the Catholics of freedom of worship. 
However, Lord Baltimore did not give up without a 
struggle. William Stone, whom liOrd Baltimore had 
appointed governor, raised a force and tried to overthrow 
the Puritan government; but he was defeated at the 
Severn River (1655). Then Lord Baltimore took the 
w^hole matter before Oliver Cromwell, who restored the 
proprietary government (1658). 

Thirty years of growth. — Charles II recognized the 
proprietary rights of the second Lord Baltimore, and 
until 1675 this good man continued to direct the affairs 
of Maryland. He was kind and liberal, and approved of 
all laws that the colony passed to further its growth. 
Settlers came each year; and the people devoted them- 



GOVERNMENT AND PROGRESS OF MARYLAND 97 



selves to the raising of tobacco, wheat, and some cattle. 
Slavery was early introduced into the colony, so the 
Maryland plantations were not unlike those of Virginia. 

In 1675 the second Lord Baltimore died; and George 
Calvert, the third Lord Baltimore, became proprietor. 
Because the right of voting was restricted to land 
owners and be- 
cause the govern- 
ment did not 
quickly put down 
Indian uprisings, 
there was a re- 
bellion in Mary- 
land not unlike 
Bacon's Rebellion 
in Virginia. This 
was soon quelled, 
however; and or- 
der was restored. 

Maryland a royal 
province. — When 

W illiam and Puritans of Maryland 

M!arV who were From the frieze in the Baltimore Court House. 
' By courtesy of the artist, Mr. C. Y. Turner. 

strongly Protes- 
tant, came to reign in England, the Protestants of 
Maryland, who outnumbered the Catholics three to one, 
expelled the governor; for the governor was a Roman 
CathoHc and represented Lord Baltimore. They ap- 
pealed to William and Mary to make Maryland a royal 
province. Their request was granted, and for the next 
twenty-five years the Maryland government was in all 
features like that of Virginia. 




98 OUR REPUBLIC 

Maryland again a proprietary colony. — In 1715 the 
then Lord Baltimore was a Protestant, having given up 
the religion of his fathers. After some difficulty, he had 
his right as proprietor of Maryland restored; and for 
more than fifty years Maryland remained a proprietary 
colony. The people were never entirely satisfied, how- 
ever, with the rule of the proprietor. They could not 
understand why they should be taxed for his benefit. 

The conditions of life in Maryland in colonial days 
were practically the same as in Virginia. 



CHAPTER XXIII 

THE BEGINNINGS OF THE CAROLINAS 

Early settlements south of Virginia. — The first attempt 
at an English settlement in America was made, you 
remember, at Roanoke Island, in what is the present 
State of North Carohna (page 39). In what is now South 
Carolina, at Port Royal, the French made their first at- 
tempt (1562). The country was named Carolina by the 
French, in honor of their king, Charles IX, Carolus being 
the Latin for Charles; and in 1629 the name was retained 
in honor of King Charles I of England. 

The Virginia colony was growing westward toward 
the mountains, rather than southward. However, be- 
fore 1660 some Virginians had settled in the region 
to the south. There were various reasons why these 
settlers separated from the other Virginians: most of 
them wished to occupy the rich lands which lay at 
their disposal and to find good grazing country; many 
were adventurers who disliked to live in settled com- 



THE BEGINNINGS OF THE CAROLINAS 99 

munities; and some had gotten into trouble in Virginia. 
Later many Quakers and other dissenters came to escape 
religious oppression. The first permanent settlement 
in North Carolina was made (1653) by Roger Green 
and a party led by him, in the region between the Ro- 
anoke and Chowan rivers. More settlers followed, and 
this was the beginning of the Albemarle colony. A few 
years later others came, some from New England and 
some from the Barbadoes, settling on the Cape Fear 
River; but they soon abandoned the settlement, and the 
Cape Fear section was not permanently settled until 1725. 

The Carolina proprietorship. — When Charles II be- 
came king in 1660, a new era was begun for English 
colonization in America. Up to this time there were only 
three portions of America settled by the English — Vir- 
ginia, Maryland, and New England. Between Mary- 
land and New England the Dutch had settled. South 
of Virginia was a large strip of territory, uninhabited, 
extending to Florida. The English people saw the 
importance of grasping the whole Atlantic coast. There- 
fore, at the same time that they planted settlements 
south of Virginia they began a war against the Dutch 
colonies between Maryland and New England. 

A charter to the territory south of Virginia had been 
granted by Charles I, in 1629, to Sir Robert Heath; 
but no colony was planted. It is doubtful whether 
Charles II knew how many settlers had already gone 
into this southern region. In any event, he determined 
to establish a proprietary for this southern country. In 
1663 he granted Carolina to eight lords-proprietors, 
among them being the Earl of Clarendon, the Duke of 
Albemarle, and Sir William Berkeley, then governor of 



100 



OUR REPUBLIC 



/■f. 



Virginia. About the only restriction placed upon the 
proprietors was that they should recognize the land 
claims of any settlers who might already have gone into 
the territory, and that the laws should conform to those 
of England. 

Albemarle and Clarendon settlements. — Colonists came 
over and in a short time began settlements around two 

centers : one to the north in what 
was known as the Albemarle colo- 
ny, where the Virginians had first 
gone ; and the other to the south 
on the Ashley River, to which 
the immigrants from the Barba- 
does went. In a few years these 
two settlements were well -to- 
do. The soil was more fertile 
than in the colonies to the north, 
and the crops were good. The 
Bahama Islands were then 
(1670) added to the Carolina 
grant, which now included all 
land south of Virginia and north 

The 




The Earl of Clarendon 
From a portrait dated 1667. 

of Florida, running from the Atlantic to the Pacific, 
proprietors established something like local self-govern- 
ment, allowing an assembly of the people Hke the as- 
semblies of Virginia and Maryland. 

Locke's scheme of government, 1669. — Unfortunately 
for Carolina, there lived in England a philosopher, John 
Locke, who devised a new plan of government for Caro- 
lina. He was a friend of one of the Carolina proprie- 
tors, and so it happened that he was asked to draw up a 
constitution for the province. This constitution is known 



NORTH CAROLINA AND SOUTH CAROLINA 101 

as the ''Grand Model," because Locke and the proprie- 
tors thought that it would be a model form of govern- 
ment for all the colonies. Locke had in mind the inter- 
ests of the lords-proprietors. His scheme divided the 
people into several chesses, graded from nobility down 
to land laborers with no privileges at all. They could 
not even leave the land on which they lived. But when 
the proprietors undertook to enforce this scheme in 
America, the result was an absolute failure. The people 
of Carolina already knew what it was to have freedom. 
The outcome was that after several years of discord, the 
new government had to be abandoned. 

CHAPTER XXIV 

NORTH CAROLINA AND SOUTH CAROLINA 

Two colonies in Carolina. — For many years (1663- 
1729) there were two distinct colonies in Carolina, but 
the proprietors tried to govern them as one. Most of the 
governors lived in the southern or Clarendon colony 
with a deputy in the Albemarle settlement, but there 
was often a governor for each colony. Constantly during 
this period there was a struggle between the people and 
the governor representing the proprietors. But in spite 
of these difficulties the colonies grew. For convenience 
we will speak of the northern colony as North Carolina 
and the southern colony as South Carolina. 

1. North Carolina 
The growth of the Albemarle colony. — The Albemarle 
colonists prospered from the beginning, many raising 
cattle and planting corn and tobacco. They built up a 



102 



OUR REPUBLIC 



-se-so^--^ — -— 



— 1-36230' 



flourishing trade with New England in defiance of the 
navigation acts, and the king's oflflcers there had much 
trouble in collecting the customs duties. At one time 
(1678) the people put into prison Deputy Governor 
Miller, who was also the collector. It was several years 
before the proprietary governor could make the people 
yield to the laws of England, and they did not yield until 

the proprietors gave them 
more responsibility in their 
own government. When this 
had been done, people flocked 
to North Carolina because 
they believed they could have 
liberty in that colony. The 
liberty-loving spirit of the 
North Carolinians showed it- 
self when Seth Sothel was 
governor. Though he was 
one of the proprietors, they would not submit to his 
tyranny, but drove him from the colony (1688). Again, 
in 1 704, there began a long struggle over the right of the 
Quakers to hold office. This was known as the Cary 
Rebellion, and during it the people of the colony forced 
two governors out of office. 

Indian troubles. — For a while. North Carolina was 
disturbed by the Tuscarora Indians, but the tribe was 
at last defeated (1711-13) by the joint forces of the 
two Carolinas. Most of the surviving Indians, who be- 
longed to the great Iroquois family, then migrated north 
to the home of their ancestors, east of the Great Lakes. 
North Carolina a royal province. — The proprietors, 
having failed in their management of the Carolinas, 




The Grants of the Carolinas 



NORTH CAROLINA AND SOUTH CAROLINA 103 

finally, with one exception, sold their claims to the crown 
(1729). Thereupon the two Carolinas were formally sepa- 
rated, and each was made into a royal province. They 
thus came to have a form of government in which the 
governor was appointed by the king. 

2. South Carolina 

Charleston. — The first body of settlers to come directly 
from England to South Carolina landed along the Ash- 
ley River. In 1670 William Sayle planted a colony at 
the junction of the Ashley and Cooper rivers on the site 
of the present city of Charleston. Sayle received the sup- 
port of the proprietors, and his settlement grew rapidly. 
On his death, he was succeeded as governor by Yeamans, 
who was very unpopular with the colonists. Into this 
region came a number of French Protestants called 
Huguenots, who had been persecuted in France. They 
were industrious, thrifty people and added much to the 
growth of the colony. 

Many governors a curse. — South Carolina would have 
grown more rapidly if it had not had so many governors. 
Unfortunately, each good governor was followed by a 
succession of bad ones. These governors tried to en- 
force the laws of trade on the high seas and the collection 
of customs, included under the navigation acts, and to 
raise taxes for the benefit of the proprietors. But the 
people resisted bitterly and drove out governor after 
governor. In 1695 John Archdale came to the colony 
as governor. He quieted matters, raised a moderate 
tax for the proprietors, and established peace with the 
Indians. 



104 



OUR REPUBLIC 




The growth of South 
Carolma. — By 1700, 
with the coming of 
many Huguenots and 
English, there were 
some five or six 
thousand people in 
the colony. About 
one half, however, 
were slaves — a larger 
proportion than was 
found in any of the 
other colonies at this 
time. The plantation 
system grew rapidly, 
many of the large 
planters living on 
their plantations in 
the summer and in 
Charleston in the win- 
ter. Thus Charles- 
ton became the cen- 
ter of social life in 
the South. It was 
also an important 
seaport. 

The people in 
South Carolina hated 
the Spaniards in 
Florida and were 
anxious to engage in 
war with them. This 



GEORGIA 105 

was discouraged by the governors and proprietors. 
However, Charleston harbor was a point from which many 
sea-rovers went out and preyed on Spanish commerce. 
These expeditions, together with the disregard of the 
navigation acts, added much to the wealth of the colony. 
South Carolina a royal province. — During the years 
following 1700, the government of the proprietors was 
very bad and finally, in 1719, the people deposed the 
governor and asked the king to appoint one. The peti- 
tion was granted, and in 1729, George II purchased from 
the proprietors their claims to the colony. 



CHAPTER XXV 

GEORGIA 

Conditions in England in 1730. — About the time that 
the Carolinas became two royal provinces, the conditions 
of life in England were in many ways deplorable. A few 
noblemen owned most of the land. The wealthy mer- 
chants owned all the ships and controlled trade. There 
was little opportunity for the great middle class of people 
to better themselves. They had almost no voice in the 
government. Because of the conditions of trade, many 
men were in a dire state of poverty. Those who were 
unable to pay their debts were thrown into prison. The 
country was overrun with paupers and beggars. 

General Oglethorpe. — To relieve this condition of affairs, 
General James Oglethorpe planned to establish a new 
colony in America. He was a kind-hearted and wealthy 
man of noble family. He had been educated at Oxford 
University, had entered the English army, and had 



106 



OUR REPUBLIC 



fought bravely in wars on the continent of Europe. 
In 1729 he was a member of ParUament and as such 
was trying to pass laws to improve conditions in Eng- 
land. He wished to take the poor debtors out of prison 
and give them a chance to start anew in life. With 
this in view, he suggested that a colony be planted 

between South Carohna and 
Florida. It w^ould not only 
help the debtors and poorer 
people but would also serve as 
a barrier to the increase of 
Spanish power in America. 

The Georgia charter. — A num- 
ber of generous men became 
interested in General Ogle- 
thorpe's plan. A sum of money 
was subscribed to send out a 
colony, and a charter was se- 
cured from King George II. 
The territory granted was called 
Georgia in honor of the king. 
General Oglethorpe and others named in the charter 
were designated as trustees. This title indicated that 
the colony was not planted for the benefit of those to 
whom the grant was made, but for the benefit of the 
settlers. Oglethorpe and his associates were to serve 
without pay and were to derive no profits from the 
undertaking. So anxious was General Oglethorpe for the 
success of the enterprise that he consented to come over 
with the first colonists. Such interest was taken in the 
matter that Parliament even voted a sum of money to 
promote the undertaking. 




James Edward Oglethorpe 
After the painting by Ravenet. 



GEORGIA 



107 



The founding of Savannah. — In 1732 Oglethorpe ar- 
rived in America with one hundred and fifty settlers. 
They were debtors released from prison, but persons of 
good character. After some little delay a high bluff on 
the Savannah River was selected as the site for settlement, 
and here was begun (1733) the city which to-day bears 
the name Savannah. 

Oglethorpe's relation with the Indians. — One of the 
first things that General Oglethorpe did was to have a 
conference with the chief 
of the Yamacraw Indians, 
who lived near by. Their 
chief was an old man, 
Tomo-chi-chi. A treaty of 
alliance was made with 
him, and this precaution 
saved Georgia from In- 
dian onslaught and plun- 
der. 

The growth of the colony. 
— It was fortunate for 
Georgia that Oglethorpe established friendly relations 
with the Indians, for the first settlers could not have con- 
tended with them. In fact, they were not fitted to estab- 
lish a colony in the wilderness. They were not industrious ; 
and had Georgia been compelled to rely for its growth 
upon the debtor class, the colony would have gone to 
ruin. Slavery and the sale of whisky were prohibited; 
for Oglethorpe intended that the colonists should them- 
selves learn to labor, and he hoped to keep them out of 
bad habits. Other settlers soon came, among them 
some Protestants from Germany known as Salzburgers. 




nvi 



The Development of Georgia 



108 OUR REPUBLIC 

These were followed by Moravians, and later by Scotch 
Highlanders. They all built good towns and were a 
thrifty people. From South Carolina came traders, 
who gave Oglethorpe much trouble; for they insisted 
on bringing whisky for the Indians and the settlers. 
Finally, the laws prohibiting whisky and slavery were 
repealed. 

Troubles with Florida. — One of the purposes for which 
Georgia had been colonized was to prevent the Spaniards 
from moving northward. In carrying out this plan, 
an English settlement had been made on St. Simon's 
Island. This brought on a war between Georgia and 
Florida. A few years later, when England and Spain 
were at war, Oglethorpe invaded Florida; but after a 
fruitless siege of St. Augustine, he was compelled to return 
home. The Spaniards retaliated by invading Georgia. 
By dint of military skill, Oglethorpe kept the Spaniards 
back until an English fleet arrived and the Spanish 
troops were forced to withdraw (1742). 

Two great preachers. — There came to Georgia to 
preach to the settlers and to the Indians John Wesley, 
who was to be the founder of the Methodist Church. 
After working among the Indians and making many con- 
verts, he returned to England. His work in Georgia 
was taken up by George Whitefield. The first orphans' 
home established in Georgia was founded by White- 
field. These two great preachers had a very whole- 
some influence, which spread into the other American 
colonies. 

Georgia a royal province. — In 1743 General Oglethorpe 
returned to England. He had been the guiding hand 
in the development of Georgia, and after his departure 



NEW YORK A DUTCH COLONY 



109 



the colonists slipped back into bad habits of quarrehng 
and idleness. The leaders left in charge disagreed, and 
the trustees in Eng- 
land were dissatisfied 
with the manage- 
ment of affairs. On 
the other hand, the 
Georgians were dis- 
satisfied with the 
trustees. In 1752 
the trustees surren- 
dered their charter; 
and Georgia, like all 
the other southern 
colonies, became a 
royal province. From this time the grov/th of the colony 
was rapid. 



WM. 


^ 


I 


M 


■■ ■# 


;, 


t^':^; ' 




M 


OB 






d 





John Wesley Preaching to the Indians 



CHAPTER XXVI 



NEW YORK A DUTCH COLONY 

The Middle Atlantic coast. — Between the English 
colonies of the South and of New England there was a 
broad strip of land which has become in many ways the 
wealthiest portion of the United States. In this district 
lie the States of New York and Pennsylvania, New 
Jersey and Delaware. At one time it looked as if the 
English claims on the Atlantic coast would remain 
separated; for all this middle tract was claimed by Hol- 
land, which, in the seventeenth century, was one of the 
great commercial countries of Europe. 



110 OUR REPUBLIC 

How the Dutch got a foothold in America. — You 
remember that it was the Dutch East India Company that 
sent Henry Hudson to find a passage to India (page 35) . 
As the result of his discoveries, Dutch traders came fre- 
quently to the Hudson region and began to trade with the 
Indians in furs. The country around was called New 
Netherland. Two small trading posts were estabhshed 
— one in 1613, on Manhattan Island; and the other a few 
years later, near the present site of Albany. This latter 
was a stronghouse, which was called Fort Nassau. In 
1621 the Dutch West India Company was organized. 
This company immediately began to send settlers to 
New Netherland. Some made a settlement on the 
Delaware River, not far from the present site of Phila- 
delphia. A number went up the Hudson River, and 
built Fort Orange where Albany now stands. Some 
went to Long Island, and others located on Manhattan 
Island. 

The growth of New Netherland. — In 1626 the Dutch 
West India Company sent over Peter Minuit to govern 
New Netherland. He purchased Manhattan Island 
from the Indians for about twenty-four dollars' worth 
of blankets, knives, and trinkets. Then, out of the 
little settlement already on the island he began at once 
to develop a town, which he called New Amsterdam. 
This was the beginning of the City of New York. 

The other settlements did not grow rapidly at first, 
but about 1630 the Dutch West India Company estab- 
hshed what is known as the "patroon system." "Patroon" 
means a patron or proprietor. To each patroon who 
would bring over a colony of fifty persons, the company 
granted a tract of sixteen miles along the Hudson River, 



NEW YORK A DUTCH COLONY 



111 



running as far into the interior as each patroon might 
wish to go. A patroon was to have the right to treat 
his tenants in the same way that a great lord in Europe 
did those who Hved on his estates. The tenants would 
have to work a certain number of days in the year for the 
patroon; to grind all their meal in the patroon's mill, pay- 
ing him for the use of it; and to do other things that 




New Amsterdam in 1656 
From a contemporary Dutch print. 

would be equivalent to paying rental for their land. This 
established a system almost like that of the nobility 
in Europe. Many of the prominent men of New York 
to-day are descended from the patroons who took grants 
of land along the Hudson River. 

The company's trade with the Indians grew, and soon 
New Amsterdam was a thriving town. There were also 
more settlements along the Delaware. The patroon 
system of securing settlers, however, was abandoned after 



112 . OUR REPUBLIC 

a few years, because it did not increase the number of 
settlements as rapidly as the company had hoped. 

Governor Stuyvesant. — Governor Minuit was suc- 
ceeded by Governor Kieft, under whom the colony did 
not grow because of war with the Indians. In 1647 he 
was in turn succeeded by Peter Stuyvesant, a cross and 
peevish old man. Stuyvesant tried to rule the colony 
with a rod of iron. He was unpopular; but he was a 
strong governor, and the colony grew rapidly under his 
administration. Like the rest of the colonists who had 
come to America, the Dutch wanted some voice in their 
own government; they would not, for example, be taxed 
against their will. So Stuyvesant was forced to have a 
council from among the people. 

During Stuyvesant's governorship, there came to New 
Netherland many races of people. It is said that at this 
time eighteen different languages were spoken in New 
Amsterdam. 

Stuyvesant conquers the Swedish settlement. — While 
Kieft was governor, the Southern Company of Sweden 
had sent out a colony. It was under the charge of Peter 
Minuit, who had previously been governor of New York. 
He built Fort Christiana (1638) about where Wilmington, 
Delaware, now^ stands. The country around was called 
New Sweden. The Dutch asked the Swedes to leave the 
country, but they would not; and when the Dutch built 
a fort near by, the Swedes seized it. Then Stuyvesant 
went with an armed force into the Delaware region and 
droves the Swedes out, and all this country was made a 
part of New Netherland (1655). 



NEW YORK AN ENGLISH COLONY 



113 



CHAPTER XXVII 

NEW YORK AN ENGLISH COLONY 

New Netherland conquered by the English. — The 
Dutch of New Netherland had frequent quarrels with 
their English neighbors east and south. Dutch farmers 
tried to occupy Connecticut 
along the shore and as far as 
the Connecticut valley, but 
were driven out by the English 
settlers (page 77) . On the other 
hand, the English desired the 
territory along the Hudson and 
Delaware rivers. Some English- 
men settled on the Delaware, 
and others went to New Amster- 
dam because there the oppor- 
tunities for trade were good. 

When Charles II became 
King of England, he saw the 
advantage of having his people 
occupy the whole of the Atlantic 

coast. They already owned the territory from Maryland 
to Florida and the coast of New England. He determined 
to secure all the land claimed by the Dutch. So in 1664 
he sent a fleet of four ships with four hundred and fifty 
soldiers to New Amsterdam and demanded its surrender. 
Stuyvesant did not wish to yield. " I had rather be carried 
to my grave," he declared. But the Dutch burghers 
were unwilling that the town of New Amsterdam should 




Peter Stuyvesant, Gover- 
nor-General OF New Am- 
sterdam IN the Province 
OF New Netherland 



114 OUR REPUBLIC 

be ruined by a bombardment; so the old governor was 
forced to yield to their entreaties and surrender. Before 
the year was out, the English had taken possession of 
all the country occupied by the Dutch. At once the 
name New Netherland was changed to New York in 
honor of the Duke of York, who was brother of the king 
and afterwards became King James II. The city of New 
Amsterdam, too, was called New York. Charles did not 
make New York a royal province but gave it to his 
brother, the Duke of York, as a proprietary. 

The action of the English in conquering New York was an 
important one. It saved the English colonies from being 
cut in two. It gave the English a solid front of territory 
along the Atlantic coast between Florida and Nova Scotia. 

New York as a proprietary. — For twenty-one years the 
Duke of York, as proprietor, ruled over the colony. He 
appointed the governor, but otherwise the affairs of New 
York went on much as they had in the days of the Dutch. 
When the English rule began, the city of New York had a 
population of about sixteen hundred, and the population 
of the whole colony was about ten thousand. The 
city was a fairly well built town. Many of the houses 
were of brick. Boston and New York were the largest 
■3ir : <' . the coast. But they were quite unlike; for the 
Dutch style of architecture and Dutch fashions of living 
were very different from the English. However, many 
English came to New York, and the town was much 
changed in manners and customs. 

New York a royal province, i685.^When the Duke of 
York became King of England under the name James 
II, New York was made into a royal province. The 
system of government that had been established while 



NEW YORK AN ENGLISH COLONY 



115 



New York was a proprietary was allowed to remain, 
except that the governor was to be appointed by the king. 
The colony had been divided into counties, and in each 
county were a number of towns where the town-meeting 
system of New England prevailed. Thus very early 
in the colony there was a mixed system of local govern- 
ment, made up of the county system of Virginia and the 




A Street in New Amsterdam 
From Valentine's " History of New York. 



township system of New England. Governor "l^Sii^a^ 
Dongan, who began his administration in 1683, under in- 
structions from the proprietor, the Duke of York, estab- 
lished a legislative assembly, which had power to levy 
all taxes. When the Duke of York became King James 
II, he declined to approve of the course of the governor, 
and abolished representative government in New York. 
Further, he ordered the governor to establish the Church 
of England in the province. 



116 OUR REPUBLIC 

Leisler's Rebellion. — In 1688 New York was joined to 
New England under Governor Andros (page 88). Short- 
ly after this, news was received that James II had been 
driven from the throne of England. Thereupon, Jacob 
Leisler, a German shopkeeper, stirred up a rebellion in 
New York and drove the deputy governor, Francis 
Nicholson, out of the colony. Leisler then undertook 
the government himself. 

The first thing he did was to call a meeting of all the 
American colonies. This was the first Colonial Con- 
gress in America. It met at Albany in Februar\^, 1690. 
The object of this Congress was to organize the colonies 
to resist the French and their Indian allies. 

In 1691 Leisler was forced to resign his control to 
Henry Sloughter, the governor appointed by William 
and Mary. Soon after this, Colonel Sloughter had 
Leisler put to death as a rebel and traitor. 

The growth of the colony. — New York grew rapidly. 
The legislative assembly practically managed affairs. 
Under the Earl of Bellomont, governor in 1698, the 
pirates who frequented New York harbor were driven 
out. This colony seemed to be the point to which most 
of the immigrants from Europe came; yet, in 1700, the 
Dutch still constituted the majority of the white popu- 
lation. The total population at the time was about 
twenty-five thousand, and perhaps two thousand five 
hundred of these were negro slaves. The settlers dwelt 
chiefly along the shores of New York Bay and on the banks 
of the Hudson. 



THE COLONY OF NEW JERSEY 117 

CHAPTER XXVIII 

THE COLONY OF NEW JERSEY 

Berkeley and Carteret. — At the time that the Enghsh 
conquered New Netherland, a few settlements had been 
made within the present State of New Jersey. They 
were regarded as a part of New Netherland. The Duke 
of York granted (1664) all the land between the Hudson 
and the Delaware to Sir George Carteret and Lord Berke- 
ley. Carteret had once been governor of the Island of 
Jersey, off the coast of England — a fact which explains 
the name New Jersey given to all this territory. Immedi- 
ately after this grant had been made, Englishmen located 
at Elizabeth and other points. From the time of these 
settlements until 1674, there were many disputes between 
the settlers and the proprietors as to taxes. As a rule, 
the settlers would pay no taxes. In disgust Lord Berke- 
ley sold out his interest, and it was finally acquired (1676) 
by William Penn and several others. The king then 
divided the colony into East Jersey and West Jersey, 
East Jersey going to Carteret and West Jersey to Penn 
and his associates. 

Penn's government of the Jerseys. — Penn's idea was 
to establish a Quaker colony in New Jersey. He set up 
a liberal government with a representative assembly, 
and about four hundred Quakers came over in one year 
(1677). When Carteret died, Penn purchased East 
Jersey from his heirs, and a government was established 
not unlike that in West Jersey. Both of these colonies 
prospered under Penn's administration. 



118 



OUR REPUBLIC 



New Jersey a royal province. — When James II came 
to the throne, his idea, you remember (page 87), was 




The Middle Colonies 



to get all New England, New York, and New Jersey 
under one government. The right to govern was sur- 



PENNSYLVANIA AND DELAWARE 119 

rendered to the king, but Penn was allowed to retain his 
rights in the lands. Penn found it impossible, however, 
to collect the rents on the lands; so, in 1702, he and all 
other claimants turned over all their rights to the crown. 
The two colonies of New Jersey, now united, became a 
royal province; but for thirty-six years the province was 
governed by a deputy governor under the governor of 
New York. Practically the same form of government 
existed in New Jersey as in New York. 

The people were not so wealthy as those of New York. 
There were but few owners of large plantations. Nearly 
all the small farmers, however, were prosperous. The 
colony of New Jersey never had trouble with the Indians; 
and its growth was, therefore, less interrupted than that 
of any other colony. In 1700 the population was prob- 
ably fifteen thousand. The majority of the people were 
Quakers. Of the others, some were Puritans from New 
England and some Scotch-Irish. 



CHAPTER XXIX 

PENNSYLVANIA AND DELAWARE 

1 . Pennsylvania 

The Quakers. — In reading about New England (page 
84) and New Jersey (page 117), you have learned that 
a number of Quakers came to America. The true name 
for these people is the Society of Friends; but in ridicule 
they were called Quakers. This religious body originated 
in England about the middle of the seventeenth century. 
They were what we term a democratic people; that is, 



120 



OUR REPUBLIC 



they believed that all men are equal in the eyes of God and 
should therefore be of equal rank in this world. They 
were opposed to titles of nobility. They thought that a 
king should be respected no more than any other man, 
nor would they take off their hats in the presence of a 
king. They were opposed to war, and in England 
refused to pay taxes for carrying on wars. They were 

opposed to church rituals and 
ceremonies and refused also to 
pay their share of the taxes that 
supported the English Church. 
For these and other reasons the 
Quakers were persecuted. 

William Penn. — Prominent 
among the English Quakers 
was William Penn, a son of 
Admiral William Penn, who had 
distinguished himself in the 
English navy. The Admiral 
was a member of the Church 
of England, and it grieved 
him very much to see his son become a Quaker. Young 
Penn was expelled from Oxford University because of 
his belief and soon became a Quaker preacher. Several 
times he was imprisoned. But in spite of warnings from 
his father and the king, he would not change his course. 
Pennsylvania founded. — On his father's death William 
Penn inherited a large fortune. He wished to use it 
to establish a colony where the Quakers could worship 
without being persecuted. With this in mind, he bought 
a part of New Jersey (page 117). To New Jersey there 
came, as you remember, many Quakers. But there was 




Obeisance to the King 
From "The Courtier's Calling," 
a pamphlet on etiquette, pub- 
lished during the reign of 
Charles II. 



PENNSYLVANIA AND DELAWARE 



121 



such quarreling over Penn's rights here that he planned 
a new colony for the Quakers. 

Charles II had owed Admiral Penn £16,000 which, 
now that the Admiral was dead, he owed to the son. 
WiUiam Penn agreed to cancel the debt if the king 
v/ould grant him a tract of land in America west of the 
Delaware River. The king did so, and in honor of Penn's 
father, he called the grant Pennsylvania, which means 
" Penn's woods." In 1681 Penn sent out a band of 
colonists. The next year 
he came himself and laid 
out a city that he called 
Philadelphia, which 
means ''brotherly love." 
Penn was a progressive 
man. He advertised the 
lands in the new terri- 
tory at a very low price 
and soon persuaded a 
number of settlers to 
come to the colony. In 
three years there were two thousand people in Phila- 
delphia, and many small settlements had been made 
near by. Soon Germans came in large numbers, and 
Penn's colony was spreading toward the present 
boundaries of the State of Pennsylvania. 

Being opposed to war, Penn determined to live peace- 
ably with the Indians. One of the first things that ho 
did was to make a binding treaty with the Indians and 
to pay them something for their land. 

The government of Pennsylvania. — Pennsylvania was 
a proprietary like Maryland, and so remained as long 



m 


\tP 



Penn's House in Philadelphia 

Built of English brick and roofed with 

slate. 



122 



OUR REPUBLIC 



as it was a colony. Despite Penn's wisdom and kindness, 
the people of Pennsylvania .did not like a proprietary 
government any more than did the people of Maryland; 
and frequently they refused to pay the tax to the pro- 
prietor. After Penn's 
death (1718) his heirs 
still ruled asproprietors, 
appointing the governor 
but allowing the people 
to have a representa- 
tive assembly. There 
was religious freedom 
in the colony from the 
start. 

2. Delaware 

The first settlements. 
— The first people to 
settle in what is now 
the State of Delaware 
were some Dutch who 
built a fort (1631) near 
the site of the present 
town of Lewes. The 
Indians destroyed the 
colony. A few years 
later (1638) the Swedes 
settled near the site of Wilmington. This settlement 
of the Swedes was soon seized by the Dutch (page 112). 
In 1664 Delaware, as a part of New Netherland, fell into 
the hands of the English. It was claimed by both 
Maryland and New Jersey. 




Penn Paying the Indians for Their 

Land 
From a print of the eighteenth century. 



PENNSYLVANIA AND DELAWARE 123 

Delaware secured by Penn. — As soon as William Penn 
came to Pennsylvania (1682), he saw that his colony must 
have open passage to the sea. So at once he negotiated 
with the Duke of York for Delaware, and secured it in 
spite of the protest of Lord Baltimore. To this territory 
Penn gave a separate government, so that Delaware grew 
independently of Pennsylvania. The governor of Penn- 
sylvania, however, always acted as governor of Delaware. 

Mason and Dixon's Line. — For many years there was 
a dispute between the proprietor of Pennsylvania and 
Delaware and the proprietor of Maryland as to the 
northern boundary of Maryland. Finally, in 1767, an 
agreement was reached and a line marked by two sur- 
veyors, Charles Mason and Jeremiah Dixon. Thus was 
established the boundary called '^ Mason and Dixon's 
Line," so frequently spoken of as the dividing line be- 
tween the North and the South. 

The growth of Pennsylvania and Delaware, — Large 
bands of Germans, Swedes, Welsh, and Scotch-Irish 
continued to settle this middle region between New York 
and Maryland. By 1700 Pennsylvania and Delaware 
together had twenty thousand colonists. A generation 
later, Pennsylvania was the third colony in population, 
Virginia being first and Massachusetts second. 



III. INTERCOLONIAL WARS 
CHAPTER XXX 

FRENCH SETTLEMENTS IN AMERICA 

The French, occupy Canada. — You have already learned 
of Jean Ribault's unfortunate settlement (page 32) and 
of the explorations of Cartier and Champlain (pages 
31-33). Champlain's explorations led to the settle- 
ment of Quebec (1608). From this city as a center, the 
French spread gradually throughout Canada. They 
moved westward and southward, reaching the Great 
Lakes and finally passing into the northern part of what 
is now the United States. The fur trade with the 
Indians proved profitable, and everywhere along the 
Great Lakes could be found French traders. These 
traders made friends with the Indians and, intermarrying 
with them, became their firm allies. There came to 
Canada also a number of priests of the order of the 
Jesuits. They were zealous to make converts to the 
Roman Catholic faith, and went here and there preach- 
ing to the Indians. This missionary spirit made ex- 
plorers of the priests. 

The Mississippi River explored. — Jesuit missions were 
established on the shores of Lake Superior and in Illinois. 
Stationed at one of these missions in Illinois was Father 
Marquette. Here he heard from the Indians of a great 
river to the west, and determined to go in search of it. 

124 



FRENCH SETTLEMENTS IN AMERICA 125 

In 1673, accompanied by his friend Joliet, he went down 
the Wisconsin River and into the Mississippi. Onward 
he went until he came to the mouth of the Arkansas 




The Death of Fatiiek MAiiyuETTK 
The figures are typical of the Jesuit and the French trader. 

River. Then he turned back; but before he reached the 
Jesuit missions, he died in the forest on the shores of Lake 
Michigan. 

La Salle. — About this time there came to Canada 
Robert de La Salle. In 1682, he went down the Mississippi 
River to its mouth. There he set up a cross, claiming 
all the lands drained by the Mississippi in the name of 
King Louis XIV of France, and naming them in his 
honor, Louisiana. 

La Salle had dreams of a great French empire in the 
New World. Like most of his race, he scorned the English. 
He believed that if the French could occupy the entire 
valleys of the Mississippi and St. Lawrence rivers, the 
English colonies would be shut in to the east of the 
Appalachian Mountains. Thus France could build a 



126 



OUR REPUBLIC 




great empire in America, though England might control 
the Atlantic coast. This scheme greatly pleased King 
Louis XIV, who authorized La Salle to make a settle- 
ment at the mouth 
of the Mississippi 
River. 

La Salle set out 
from France with 
four ships and about 
three hundred set- 
tlers (1684). The 
ships were steered 
in the wrong direc- 
tion and, instead of 
reaching the mouth 
of the Mississippi, 
went into Mata- 
gorda Bay off the 
coast of Texas. 
Here La Salle and his companions landed and attempted 
to plant a colony. Finally, when they were nearly 
starved. La Salle started on foot for Canada. He had 
gone but a short distance when he was murdered by one 
of his companions. 

French settlement of Mississippi, Louisiana, and Ala- 
bama. — For a time La Salle's plans for French col- 
onization were abandoned; but at length (1698) Louis 
XIV sent over another band of settlers, two hundred in all, 
under Iberville as governor (1699). After a search for a 
satisfactory site, a settlement was made at Biloxi in the 
present State of Mississippi. Three years later another 
party arrived and located on Mobile Bay in Alabama. 



La Salle Claiming the Valley of the Mis- 
sissippi IN THE Name of Louis XIV of 
France 



FRENCH SETTLEMENTS IN AMERICA 127 



Each year new settlers came. Some stopped east of the 
Mississippi, and some went west. In 1718 the town of 
New Orleans was founded, and farther up the river St. 
Louis was begun. Soon new settlements were made on 
the Great Lakes, and the French had laid the foundation 




Q MarijueUe i Jbliet 16T6 

La Salle lOT-i-lGSa 



G V L F OF 3lEXrC0 \ 



The Principal Forts and Settlements Established by the French 

BEFORE THE ClOSE OF THE EIGHTEENTH CeNTURY 

of Detroit and several towns in what is now Indiana. 
The next step was to bring the settlements of the north in 
touch with those of the south. This was done by building 
a chain of forts through the Mississippi valley. By 1750 
it looked as if La Salle's hope of a French empire in 
North America might be realized. 



128 OUR REPUBLIC 



CHAPTER XXXI 



KING WILLIAM'S, QL^EN ANNE'S, AND KING 
GEORGE'S WARS 

Wars between England and France. — After James II 
had been deposed (1688) and William and Mary had 
become rulers of England, France showed herself a bitter 
enemy. Louis XIV of France had long wished to bring 
the Dutch under French rule, but William, who had 
formerly been ruler of Holland, prevented this. Further- 
more, William was a Protestant; James II was a Catholic; 
and Louis XIV thought it his duty as the most power- 
ful Catholic monarch in Europe to help James back to 
the throne. At least, if this were impossible, he would 
do all he could to weaken England; for England was the 
most powerful of the Protestant countries. Moreover, 
Louis had another cause for resentment. When he had 
driven the Huguenots — the Protestants of France — out 
of his kingdom, the English had allowed them to settle 
in the American colonies. 

King William's War. — This attitude of Louis XIV 
brought on a v;ar in Europe, which lasted for eight years 
(1689-97). The French and the English in America took 
up the quarrel; and the war here is known as King 
William's War. The American colonies were not drawn 
very deeply into it. New York and New England, how- 
ever, were brought into conflict with the French of Canada, 
who had the support of the Indians. Schenectady in 
New York; Salmon Falls in New Hampshire, Portland 
in Maine, and other places in New England were burned; 



QUEEN ANNE'S WAR 129 

and the colonists lived in great terror. Sir William 
Phipps raised a force and destroyed Port Royal in 
Acadia. An invasion of Quebec was attempted, but 
failed. When the war came to an end in Europe, hos- 
tilities ceased in America without any of the differences 
having been settled. 

Queen Anne's War. — In the reign of Queen Anne, who 
followed W^illiam and Mary, another war broke out in 
Europe, lasting eleven years (1702-13). England 
alhed herself with the enemies of France, fearing that 
Louis XIV would gain too much power. In America 
the colonies that took part in the war were chiefly New 
York and those of New England. Many small towns 
were destroyed by the French and Indians. The New 
Englanders succeeded in again capturing Port Royal in 
Acadia, which had been rebuilt; and when the war 
closed, England kept Acadia, now known as Nova 
Scotia. 

In this war Spain was an ally of France. So the 
southern colonies were opposed by the Spaniards of 
Florida. A force from South Carolina captured St. 
Augustine. On learning that Spanish soldiers were ap- 
proaching to retake the town, the English colonists 
burned St. Augustine and returned to Charleston. A 
small combined French and Spanish fleet then attacked 
Charleston, but was driven away. 

The war ended in Europe with the treaty of Utrecht. 
Besides acquiring Nova Scotia, England got control of 
the entire African slave trade to America. This was 
unfortunate. Many years afterward, when the English 
colonies wished to break up the slave trade to America, 
the English Government refused its approval because a 



130 



OUR REPUBLIC 



number of English merchants would be deprived of a 
profitable business. 

King George's War. — From 1714 to 1744, during the 
reigns of George I and George II, England and France 
were outwardly at peace; but each was suspicious of 
the other. English settlers were pushing across the 
Alleghany Mountains and making homes for themselves 





k 







The Burning of the French Ships off Louisburg 



in the valley of the Mississippi; and meanwhile the 
French were spreading over the Gulf territory and moving 
up the valley. There were fewer missions at that time and 
more forts; fewer Jesuits and more traders and soldiers. 

Another war broke out (1744) among the countries of 
Europe, in which France and England had a part; and 
England took the side opposing France. Again the 
American colonies were drawn into the war. The New 
Englanders under a New England leader. Sir William 
Pepperell, who had gradually won high rank, captured 
Louisburg on Cape Breton Island, after a most daring 



STRUGGLE OVER WESTERN LANDS 131 

siege. But many of the border towns in New York and 
New England were burned by the French and their 
Indian alhes. 

The southern colonies were again pitted against 
Florida, because the Spaniards, as allies of the French, 
had tried to capture St. Simon's Island and defeat the 
new colony of Georgia (page 108). Fortunately General 
Oglethorpe was able to drive the Spaniards back. When 
a treaty of peace was signed (1748), Louisburg on Cape 
Breton Island was given back to the French. This 
angered the New Englanders who had fought so bravely 
for it. After fifty years or more of war, the French and 
English holdings in America were practically unchanged, 
except that Nova Scotia had passed under English rule. 



CHAPTER XXXII 

STRUGGLE OVER WESTERN LANDS 

Preparation for a greater conflict. — As far as America 
was concerned, the struggle between England and France 
had scarcely begun. The English determined to occupy 
the Mississippi valley; and the Ohio Company, formed 
chiefly of Virginians, was preparing to go into the valley 
of the Ohio. The French also had come into that valley 
and built Fort Duquesne about where Pittsburg, Penn- 
sylvania, now stands. Moreover, the French had gone 
through the Ohio valley and put down lead tablets, 
each engraved with an inscription claiming the land for 
France. 

Virginia prepares for resistance. — In coming into the 
Ohio valley, the French were encroaching upon Vir- 



132 OUR REPUBLIC 

ginia's territory. Governor Dinwiddle of Virginia sent 
George Washington as a messenger to the French to 
request them to withdraw. Washington at that time 
was a young man about twenty years old. 

George Washington was born in Westmoreland County, 
Virginia, in 1732. When he was a mere boy, his father 
died; so he was reared by his mother, Mary Wash- 
ington, who is known in history as the ''Mother of 
Washington." It is said that through all his life George 
Washington was noted for his truthfulness. We are 
told that as a boy he loved to play soldier, and at school 
would organize his companions into bands and have sham 
battles. Because his mother wished it, he gave up his 
desire to be a sailor boy. Instead of going to sea, he 
learned surveying. 

At sixteen years of age he was surveying all the country 
in the Shenandoah valley. His life was a hard one, sleep- 
ing on the ground at night and constantly in danger of 
being killed by Indians. As a member of the Ohio Com- 
pany, he was put in charge of a body of militia. It was 
at this time that Governor Dinwiddle called upon him 
to be the messenger to the French. 

After a hard journey Washington reached Fort Du- 
quesne, where the French received him pleasantly, but 
declined to remove from the valley. 

Virginia sends troops into the Ohio valley. — After 
Washington made his report, Dinwiddle sent him in 
command of a body of troops to drive out the French. 
The enterprise was unsuccessful. Fort Necessity, which 
Washington built, was attacked by the French; and, after 
a stubborn resistance, the Virginians were forced to sur- 
render. Washington had conducted the campaign so 



STRUGGLE OVER WESTERN LANDS 



133 



well, however, that he was able to make terms with the 
French, by which his men were allowed to march away, 
retaining their arms (1754). 

Franklin's plan of union. — Other colonies became inter- 
ested. Dinwiddle called a conference of the governors 
of several colonies, including Maryland and Pennsyl- 
vania, to be held at Annapolis. Later a conference was 
called at Albany (1754). At this conference Benjamin 
Frankhn proposed a plan for the union of all the 
colonies under a president-general to be appointed by 
the crown and a council to be elected by the colonies. 

The plan was not accepted, 
however. The English 
Government thought that 
the colonies would have 
too much power, while the 




Ohio Valley Region, 1755 



colonies feared union under a ruler appointed by the 
king. Nevertheless, this conference produced one re- 
sult — a more friendly spirit among the colonies and a 
determination on their part to drive the French out of 
America. 



134 OUR REPUBLIC 

Braddock's defeat. — Again war broke out in Europe. 
Prussia, Austria, France, and England were the chief 
combatants. The English sent General Braddock to 
help the colonies take Fort Duquesne. Braddock joined 
the Virginia troops at Alexandria (1755). He was a 
trained soldier and a brave man, but he knew nothing 
about fighting in the American wilderness. He marched 
toward Fort Duquesne with drums beating and flags 
flying. As he approached the fort, he was suddenly 
attacked on all sides by the French and Indians in am- 
bush. Braddock was shot down and soon afterward died 
from his wound. The whole army would probably have 
been destroyed but for the bravery of Colonel George 
Washington. He rallied the fleeing troops so that they 
made a stand behind the trees and, under cover of 
bushes, fought in regular American style. 



CHAPTER XXXIII 

THE FRENCH DRIVEN OUT OF NORTH AMERICA 

Other campaigns. — A campaign against the French 
was begun all along the frontier line, but the English 
commanders were incompetent. The entire frontiers of 
Virginia, Pennsylvania, and New York, and northern New 
England were left exposed to the attacks of the French 
and their Indian alhes. The leader of the French was 
Montcalm. Had the French population of America been 
larger, he undoubtedly could have made great inroads 
into the English colonies. But there were only about 
eighty thousand French in America; the white popula- 
tion of the English colonies was about a million. 



FRENCH DRIVEN OUT OF NORTH AMERICA 135 

Acadian Exiles. — The English had reasons to fear that 
the French hving in Acadia, or Nova Scotia, might rebel 
and aid their mother country in this war. An order was 
therefore issued for the forcible removal of them from 
their homes. It was a sad day for these unfortunate 
people ; for some families and many relatives and friends 
were permanently separated. They were scattered 
among the different colonies. Many of the exiles found 
their way to the French colony of Louisiana where their 
descendants are living to-day. 

William Pitt's plans. — The French had been victorious 
everywhere. The English Government needed a good 
counselor. He was found in the person of William Pitt. 
As Prime Minister of England (1757), he determined to 
push the war vigorously and to put new and efficient men 
in service. The old generals were recalled; and a young 
man, James Wolfe, was given charge of the British army 
in America. A general move was to be made against the 
French from Virginia to the mouth of the St. Lawrence. 

English successes. — Louisburg, on Cape Breton Island, 
was taken from the French in 1758. The same year. 
Fort Duquesne and Niagara were captured. Thus 
the French were practically driven out of the territory 
claimed by the English. 

The fall of Quebec. — Pitt wanted to do more than 
merely drive back the French. He wanted to conquer 
their territory. So he sent General Wolfe against Quebec. 
Montcalm had five thousand regulars, ten thousand Ca- 
nadian militia, and several thousand Indian allies, while 
Wolfe had about nine thousand regular troops to lead 
against the city. When he had failed to take the city by 
storm, he laid siege to it. After many weeks he discov- 



136 OUR REPUBLIC 

ered that the cUffs upon which a portion of the city was 
built were not well guarded; and, in the dead of night, 
he moved a part of his army in boats quietly by the city 
and began an ascent of the steep cliffs. With great diffi- 
culty his men climbed up a narrow path, in single file. 
To the amazement of the French, on the morning of Sep- 




The Death of General Wolfe on the Plains of Abraham 
After the painting by Benjamin West. 

tember 13, 1759, they saw about four thousand English 
troops drawn up on the Plains of Abraham. Mont- 
calm rallied his troops and went out to battle. He was 
in the thickest of the fight and was mortally wounded. 
Wolfe, too, exposed himself to the enemy and was like- 
wise wounded. He was being carried to his tent when he 
heard the cry, ''They fly! They fly!" 

''Who?" asked Wolfe. 

"The French," was the reply. 





European Possessions in North America in 1755 and in 1763 



COLONISTS AND THEIR HOMES IN 1763 137 

''Then I die happy," he said. These were his last 
words; and so England lost the brave soldier to whom 
she owes her possession of Canada. 

The end of the war. — In 1763, the terrible struggle 
that had gone on in Europe was brought to an end by the 
Treaty of Paris. Since Spain had been an ally of France, 
England demanded from Spain all of Florida. From 
France she secured Canada and all the French possessions 
east of the Mississippi River except the ' ' island of Orleans. ' ' 
France compensated Spain for the loss of Florida by ced- 
ing to her all the territory west of the Mississippi River. 
Thus France surrendered her entire possessions in North 
America, and the dream of La Salle (page 12^ for a North 
American empire vanished. It then seemed that Eng- 
land might have a colonial empire in America. At the 
same time that she had driven the French out of North 
America, she had driven them out of India. With such 
large possessions, it looked as if England could easily 
outstrip all the other European countries. 



CHAPTER XXXIV 

THE COLONISTS AND THEIR HOMES IN 1763 

Population. — When the war between England and 
France closed with the Treaty of Paris in 1763, there 
were thirteen colonies stretching from Maine to Florida, 
in addition to the possessions aquired from France. In 
no colony was there a very large population, the total popu- 
lation of all being about one million four hundred thou- 
sand, of whom probably two hundred and fifty thousand 
were African slaves. Virginia was the most populous, 



138 



OUR REPUBLIC 



Massachusetts was second, and Pennsylvania third. The 
population was about equally divided between the North 
and the South. Some settlers had passed beyond the 
Alleghany Mountains, but the Enghsh colonies were 

really along the Atlantic 
seaboard. 

Of the white population 
at least ninety per cent were 
English. The Dutch, Ger- 
mans, Swedes, and French, 
with a sprinkling of other na- 
tionalities, made up the rest. 
There were more French in 
South Carolina and more 
Germans in Pennsylvania 
than in the other colonies. 
The Dutch, of course, were 
numerous in New York. The 
English people differed great- 
ly in their point of view, the 
people of New England being 
sturdy, stern, and serious- 
minded; those of the South 
more given to amusements, 
and great admirers of Eng- 

A type of Southern aristocracy. ][s\i SOCial life 

Social classes. — Everywhere in the colonies there were 
class distinctions. The aristocrats of New England were 
for the most part officials, ministers, and the descendants 
of the first settlers. In the first catalogues of Harvard 
College the students' names were arranged in the order 
of their social standing. The aristocrats of New York 




Martha Washington when a 
Young Woman 



COLONISTS AND THEIR HOMES IN 1763 139 

were chiefly the descendants of the old Dutch patroons 
and wealthy Enghsh merchants of Manhattan Island. In 
Pennsylvania the influential class were the Quaker plan- 
ters; in the South, the owners of large plantations. Below 
the aristocrats there was in all the colonies a second class 
composed of small farmers, traders, and shopkeepers. In 
a sense, most of the colonies contained a third class com- 




"The Tobacco Manufactory in Different Branches" 

Showing slaves and "indented servants" at work on a Southern plantation. — - 
After a print engraved for the Universal Magazine, London, 1750. 

posed of artisans and laborers not bound to a term of 
service. A fourth class was made up of the ''indented 
servants" — white persons bound to service for a term of 
years. This class was found in all the colonies. During 
their period of indenture, as it was termed, they could be 
bought and sold like slaves. The African slaves made 
up the fifth class. This class existed in all the colonies; 
but in South Carolina the slaves outnumbered the white 



140 OUR REPUBLIC 

population, and in Virginia they were nearly equal in 
number to the whites. In Massachusetts they were not 
more than one fortieth of the whole population. 

Social life. — The New England people were stern in 
manner and in their family life. Children were given 
few amusements and were taught that too many pleasures 
were sinful. Their amusements were generally of a use- 
ful kind — quilting parties, spinning bees, and the like; 
so what little pleasure they got out of life was in social 
gatherings where useful things were made. The Quakers 
of Pennsylvania and New Jersey were only slightly more 
lenient, but they did not look unkindly upon all follies 
and amusements. 

In the South and New York, conditions were some- 
what different. There was much gaming, horse-racing, 
and dancing, and amusement of one kind or another 
for all classes of the people. The life of the aristocratic 
Dutch patroon of New York and the lordly planter of 
the South was one of ease and pleasure, filled with many 
noble ideals. There were frequent gatherings that lasted 
for many days. The days were spent in hunting or in 
the discussion of important matters relating to politics 
and the development of the country, and the evenings 
were spent in music and dancing. 

The people in their homes. — The home life of the 
people differed greatly. Among the lower classes in all 
the colonies there was a real struggle for existence. The 
wife and mother did all the housework and made all the 
clothes, and frequently the boys and girls were bound to 
service to some wealthy man of the neighborhood. The 
head of this frugal home worked as a common laborer or 
as a tenant, if he did not own a small piece of land. His 



COLONISTS AND THEIR HOMES IN 1763 141 




wage was small, and his hours long. From sun to sun 
was the working day in colonial times. 

The house of a humble family such as we have de- 
scribed was usually a crude log or clapboard structure 
without plastering and frequently with a dirt floor. 
Tables were sometimes made from 
stumps of trees; and stairways, of 
notched logs. One room sufficed 
for bed-chamber, parlor, kitchen, 
and dining room. Frequently there 
was no bedstead, and pallets of 
straw or grass or leaves were made 
upon the floor. 

The cooking was done in the 
fireplace, as there were no stoves. 
In the summer time it was done 
out of doors, and often the meals 
were served under the trees. There 

was very little variety of food. Dried meat or salt pork 
or dried and salt fish made up the meat diet, with peas, 
onions, weeds, and flowers for vegetables. Coffee was 
seldom used, and many a poor family did not have a 
pound of sugar during the whole year. For sugar, they 
depended upon molasses brought from the West Indies. 
The tableware of the poorer classes was rough or carved 
wooden blocks; the well-to-do middle classes had plates 
and dishes of pewter or very common china. 

The wealthy throughout all the colonies had brick 
houses or well-constructed frame buildings. There were 
not, however, a great number of large mansions. These 
homes were well furnished. Among the Southern planters 
most of the furnishings were imported from England, but 



Plain Country Folk 
From a print dated 1772. 



142 



OUR REPUBLIC 




The House of a Pennsylvania Planter 



in New England much of the furniture in common use was 
made at home. In the South, the best mansions were in the 
tidewater region. The pioneer's home, though his acres 

might be large, more 
nearly approached in 
appearance and fur- 
nishings the homes of 
the humbler people 
of tidewater. 

The clothing of the 
wealthy was also im- 
ported from England ; 
and the ships that 
carried cargoes of tobacco and other exports across the 
ocean came back with silks and satins for the ladies and 
velvets for the men. In 1763 
gentlemen wore knee trousers 
and silk stockings with swallow- 
tail coats and fancy waistcoats. 
The trousers were often green, 
the waistcoat red or yellow, and 
the coat blue. The hair was 
worn long, and was either fast- 
ened in a bag, or made into a 
queue, at the back of the neck. 
It was common for both men 
and women to powder their hair. 
There were many servants in 
the homes of the wealthy. Most 
of the slaves owned in New 
England were house servants. 
In New England the farm work 




John Wesley Walking be- 
tween Two Friends, 
Physician and a Clergy-j 

MAN 

Showing the sober dress of pro- 
fessional men of the day. 
— After a sketch from life, , 
made in 1790. 



SOME PHASES OF COLONIAL LIFE 143 

was done chiefly by white laborers; also all the work at the 
shipyards and the carpenter work of every kind. On the 
large Southern plantations, however, by 1763 practically 
all the work was done by negro slaves. Some slaves could 
spin and weave. Some were trained to farm, some to be 
carpenters and brick masons, and others blacksmiths. 
Thus, with the exception of those articles that were im- 
ported from England, everything needed was produced 
on the plantation. 

The food of the wealthy was far better than that of the 
poor. Many fresh meats were served, and the garden on 
a great plantation was filled with all kinds of vegetables. 



CHAPTER XXXV 

SOME PHASES OF COLONIAL LIFE 

Industries. — The New Englanders were the chief sea- 
faring people of America. In every town on the New 
England coast there was a small shipyard, and the New 
England vessels went all over the world. Fishing was 
profitable; and Spain, Portugal, and other European 
countries afforded good markets. Among the New Eng- 
landers, however, were a number of prosperous farmers, 
particularly in the Connecticut valley. 

In the middle colonies agriculture was the chief occu- 
pation, though cattle were raised in New York and 
Pennsylvania, and there were many manufacturing 
enterprises. The cities of New York and Philadelphia 
were important shipping centers, from which large 
quantities of grain were exported. 



144 



OUR REPUBLIC 



Maryland, Virginia, the Carolinas, and Georgia were 
almost wholly agricultural. Tobacco and wheat were 




The City of Boston in 1744 
After a drawing by Turner, of Boston, made in that year. 

the products of Maryland and Virginia; cattle, tar, and 
turpentine of North Carolina; indigo and rice of South 
Carolina; while all these colonies raised an abundance 




Rice Fields of South Carolina 
After a sketch by Basil Hall. 



of grain. In Virginia a few iron furnaces had been 
established. 

Travel. — In all the colonies travel was difficult. Where 
the streams were large enough, the best way was to go by 



SOME PHASES OF COLONIAL LIFE 



145 



sailboat. Even in traveling from New York to Phila- 
delphia it was better to go by boat. In the early part 
of the eighteenth century, lines of stagecoaches began to 
run between New York and Philadelphia and between New 
York and Boston. The stagecoaches were heavy, and the 
roads always bad. The result was that travel was very 
slow. It took three days and many relays of horses to 
go by coach from New York to Philadelphia, a distance 
of ninety miles. 

From one settlement to another within any colony, 
the roads were practically nothing more than bridle 
paths; and travel was chiefly on horseback. The migra- 
tion westward from the tidewater into the Piedmont or 
upland sections of all the colonies was made under great 
difficulties, because of lack of well-defined roads. The 
emigrants usually rode, while some slave or " indented 
servant" brought 
such household goods 
as they dared to carry 
in rude ox carts. 

Education. — As a 
rule, as soon as each 
colony was founded, 
some steps were 
taken to establish 
schools. Virginia had 
at Hampton the first 
free school in Amer- 
ica. It was endowed 

, -i-> • • \\ii.Li\M \M) Mary College 

bj^ one Benjamin 

Syms. The first free school system for an entire colony 

was established in Massachusetts; and the first college, 




146 OUR REPUBLIC 

Harvard, was in the same colony. The first college in the 
South was the college of William and Mary. By 1763 
foundations had been laid for Yale, Princeton, and three 
or four other colleges. They were established for the 
benefit chiefly of ministers and Indians. Elementary and 
secondary education in the middle colonies and in the 
entire South was practically in the hands of privately em- 
ployed tutors, though here and there was a free school. 

The culture of the people was not broad compared 
with modern times. Books were few. Most houses 
could show only a volume or two besides Shakespeare 
and the Bible. There were, however, some fine private 
libraries in the South and in New England. William 
Byrd, of Virginia, who died in 1732, had a library of about 
four thousand volumes. Among the white people were 
many who could neither read nor write. This was true 
of New England as well as of the South. A vast majority 
of the property holders in every colony, however, had at 
least an elementary education. 

Communication. — News spread slowly from colony to 
colony, there being no telegraph or other means of rapid 
communication. Mail routes were established between 
the chief towns. The deliveries, however, were not 
regular, as the mail was never sent out until postage 
enough had accumulated to pay the carrier. There were 
no daily newspapers; and such newspapers as were 
published were small sheets, sometimes no larger than a 
pamphlet, and containing at most four pages. The fi.rst 
newspaper printed in America was started in Boston, in 
1711. It was called the Boston News Letter. The first 
newspaper in the South was the Virginia Gazette, begun 
in 1736. The papers were under government censorship. 



SOME PHASES OF COLONIAL LIFE 



14.7 



Government. — In 1763 the colonies were of three classes 
— the corporate charter colonies, the proprietary colonies, 
and the royal provinces. Rhode Island and Connecticut 
belonged to the first class. Under a charter from the 
king they elected their own governors and made their 
own laws without any interference from England. To 
the second class belonged Pennsylvania, Delaware, and 
Maryland. Pennsylvania and Delaware were owned by 
the heirs of William Penn. jVIaryland was under the 
control of the Lords Baltimore. The governors in these 
provinces were appointed by the proprietors, and all laws 
before they became binding had to be approved by the 
proprietors. To the class of royal provinces belonged 
New Hampshire, New York, New Jersey, Virginia, the 
two Carolinas, and Georgia. In this class may also be 
placed Massachusetts, which differed from the others 
in that it was a royal province with a charter. In the 
royal provinces the governors were appointed by the 
king ; and the laws passed 
by their Assemblies had 
to be approved by the 
king, or by a committee 
of the Privy Council of 
England representing the 
king. 

Local government. — In 
local affairs there was 
great diversity. In New 
England the town or 
township was the unit; 

and the people met together in a mass meeting, made 
their own rules for the government of the locality, and 




The Old Court House at Williams- 
burg, Virginia 



148 OUR REPUBLIC 

elected the local officers. In the South the unit was the 
county; and as a rule, the officers were only a sheriff and 
his deputies and a number of justices of the peace, who, 
meeting together, formed a county court . These owed their 
appointment directly or indirectly to the governor. In 
the middle colonies local government was a combination 
of town and county government, there being a county 
system, though in the counties there were frequently 
many towns governed as towns were in New England. 

Religion. — By 1763 all the Southern and middle colo- 
nies, except Delaware and Pennsylvania, recognized the 
Cliurch of England as their established church. It was 
supported by levies made upon the people of the parish, 
whether they accepted the doctrines of the established 
church or not. In all of New England, except Rhode 
Island, the established church was the Congregational, 
which also was supported by taxation. In Rhode Island, 
Pennsylvania, and Delaware, there was no established 
church: and no one was taxed to support any church. 
There was a sprinkling of various religious denominations 
in all the colonies. In 1763 no one religious organization 
contained a majority of the people in English America. 



IV. PERIOD OF REVOLUTION 
CHAPTER XXXVI 

DISSATISFACTION WITH ENGLAND'S POLICY 

Some results of French and Indian wars. — The continued 
wars from 1697 to 1763 had created in the colonies a spirit 
of self-reliance. The people had found that thej^ knew more 
about conducting their own wars than did the best 
trained English soldiers. Moreover, these wars had 
brought the colonies more closely together, and they were 
ready to aid one another. During this same period of 
war there had been more or less struggle with the royal 
governors; and, as a rule, the people did not like the king's 
representatives in America. The colonists were ready to 
oppose any proposition that looked like an imposition. 

Troubles over the established church. — In those colo- 
nies where the Church of England was established, 
many persons, not being members of that church, felt 
that it was an imposition to be taxed to support it. 
Were it not for the English Government, they thought, 
they would not have to pay taxes for religious purposes. 
At one time the King of England had refused to approve 
a Virginia law that reduced the salaries of ministers. 
Nevertheless, the salaries were reduced; and the ministers 
brought suit, in the famous ''Parsons' Case," to recover 
the amounts that had been withheld. But Patrick 
Henry so earnestly advocated the rights of the people to 

149 



150 



OUR REPUBLIC 




determine what they should pay to the ministers, without 
interference from England, that the jury gave the par- 
sons only one penny damages. 

Opposition to governors. — Another cause of dissatis- 
faction was oppression by the royal governors. In 
North Carolina the governor, in order to build a palace, 

tried to raise the 
necessary money 
by taxing the peo- 
ple. In New 
England the gov- 
ernors did not 
give sufficient 
support against 
the French and 
Indians. In Vir- 

The Hanover Court House. IN WHICH Patrick • j^ ^^^ ^^^^^ 
Henry Argued the Parsons Case ° 

and South Caro- 
lina, the governors repeatedly dismissed the Assemblies 
whenever the representatives of the people expressed 
any criticism of English policy. The people's representa- 
tives were able to a certain extent to overcome these 
governors by refusing to appropriate money or to levy 
taxes. The latter was the usual course, especially in 
North Carolina. An effort to establish in America a 
government by aristocrats did not appeal to the people. 
There was a growing democratic spirit in all the colonies. 
Delays in approving laws. — In all the royal provinces 
every law that was passed had to be sent to England for 
approval. This delayed putting laws into operation, and 
frequently good laws were disapproved by the king. 
Sometimes, when the king did not act on the law, the 



DISSATISFACTION WITH ENGLAND'S POLICY 151 

people would put it into operation despite him. Later 
the king would disapprove it. Much confusion and dis- 
cord would necessarily follow. To the people in general 
there seemed to be a constant changing of their laws. 
Under such circumstances it was not strange that they 
came to regard the crown as arbitrary. 

The Navigation Acts. — In the days of Oliver Cromwell 
regulations were passed to control colonial commerce. 
From that time to 1763 no less than thirty-three acts 
were passed relating to colonial trade. The sum and 
substance of these acts was that goods must be shipped 
out of the colonies only in English vessels or vessels 
bound for English ports, and that goods should be shipped 
into the colonies only in English vessels or vessels sailing 
from English ports. This was a great restriction on colo- 
nial trade ; for it meant that no goods could be imported 
or exported except through English merchants. 

The colonies were practically forbidden to manufacture 
certain articles (for instance woolen goods), in order that 
the trade might go to English manufacturers and dealers 
in these articles. These laws were not obeyed by the 
Americans, particularly the New Englanders. Further- 
more, the British Government placed heavy duties on 
certain articles shipped to colonial ports. These duties 
were frequently evaded by the merchants. New England 
vessels were engaged in trade with many points, and often 
brought goods to the colonies without paying duties. 

Writs of Assistance. — In order to enforce the Naviga- 
tion Laws, special courts were established to try smug- 
glers. With a view to giving these courts more power to 
prevent smuggling, Writs of Assistance were issued as 
in England. These writs gave authority to the officers to 



152 OUR REPUBLIC 

search for smuggled goods in any places where they deemed 
wise to look. When the officers attempted to search some 
homes in Boston, the townsfolk made a vigorous protest 
on the ground that it was wrong to go into the house of 
any citizen on a general search warrant. 

In 1761 James Otis, a lawyer of Boston, was employed 
by some prominent merchants to fight in the Superior 
Court of Massachusetts all Writs of Assistance. The 
argument that he made before the court was that any act 
of Parliament which established these writs was null and 
void, because such a writ was contrary to the charter of 
Massachusetts and against all the principles of the Eng- 
lish constitution. He lost the case; but he won the sym- 
pathy of the people, whose indignation towards England 
was greatly aroused. 

■ CHAPTER XXXVII 

THE STAMP ACT AND THE TOWNSHEXD ACTS 

England's American problem in 1763. — The Treaty of 
Paris at the end of the French War gave England all the 
territory east of the Mississippi and north of the Great 
Lakes (page 137). How she was to control this vast 
territory was the question that Parliament had to settle. 

A standing army was necessary, because of the large 
number of Indians in the Mississippi v^alley and along the 
Ohio River and the Great Lakes. The Indians of the 
Northwest had already bestirred themselves; and the 
Ottawas, under a leader named Pontiac, finally broke 
into rebellion. Pontiac knew that the English settlers in 
America would not intermarry with the Indians, but 



STAMP ACT AND TOWNSHEND ACTS 



153 



would eventually drive them westward. All the Indians 
from the mouth of the Mississippi to the Great Lakes 
joined in Pontiac's conspiracy. At one time all the forts 
in the Northwest, with a few exceptions, were held by In- 
dians. An English army sent into this territory finally 
subdued the Indians, and peace 
was restored. 

England felt that settlers 
would soon be pushing across the 
Alleghany Mountains, and that 
new conflicts with the red man 
would follow. Moreover, the 
English possessions in the New 
World might be attacked by 
some European power. 

All of these considerations 
caused Parliament to wish to 
keep a standing army in America. 
But, as the English Government 
was unwilling to bear the entire 
expense of this army, it was pro- 
posed to tax the American colonies. King George III 
especially was anxious to tax the colonies and he influenced 
Parliament to pass a law providing for such a tax. 

The Stamp Act. — The public debt of England had been 
doubled by the wars with France, and the support of a 
standing army in America would increase England's colo- 
nial expenses fivefold. To raise money from the Ameri- 
can people, a stamp act was passed in 1765. By this 
measure all bills of merchandise, all legal writings, all 
licenses, newspapers, almanacs, etc., must have upon 
them a stamp, the cost of which varied from one cent to 




George III, King of England 
1760-1820 

The frontispiece in " Watt's 
Compleate Spelling Book," 
from which many colonial 
children were taught. 



154 



OUR REPUBLIC 



fifty dollars, according to the character of the docu- 
ment. This was a system of indirect taxation which the 
English Government thought that the Americans would 
accept. It was estimated that this tax would pay one- 
third of the expenses of a colonial standing army. 

Opposition to the Stamp Act. — The colonies declared 
that they had already borne their full share of the bur- 
dens of the French war, and that they did not need a 
standing army. They also called attention to the well- 
known saying of Englishmen: " Taxation without repre- 
sentation is tyranny." They did not mean by this that 
they wished to be represented in the Enghsh Parlia- 
ment, but that they wished to pay only taxes raised 
by their own Assemblies. 

In many parts of the countr}^ secret societies were 
organized, called the Sons of Liberty. Their object was 
to force all officers who had been appointed to sell the 
stamps, to resign their positions, or 
else to drive them from the country. 
Riots occurred in a number of places. 
Many of the merchants agreed not 
to have any dealings with English 
merchants until the Stamp Act had 
been repealed. Documents were 
drawn up on paper that contained 
no stamp, and in a silent way the 
colonists accepted these as legal. 

The governors in all the colonies 
tried to enforce the Stamp Act. In 
New York the people burned the governor in effigy. In 
North Carolina hundreds of armed men, led by Waddell, 
Ashe, and Harnett, defied Governor Tryon and by force 




NT'SHULJbOJ'CJS/ 



An English Revenue 

Stamp for the 

Colonies 



STAMP ACT AND TOWNSHEND ACTS 155 

even against English vessels, prevented the sale of stamps 
in the colony. The officers elected by the people were, 
as a rule, opposed to the Stamp Act. The Assembly of 
Virginia was the first to speak openly against it. In 
May, 1765, Patrick Henry carried through . the Virginia 
Assembly a series of resolutions denouncing the Stamp Act 
and declaring that the right to tax the people of Virginia 
lay entirely with that Assembly. In discussing these reso- 
lutions, Patrick Henry in the midst of cries of " Treason, 
Treason!" said: "Caesar had his Brutus; Charles I, his 
Cromwell, and George III may profit by their example. 
If this be treason, make the most of it." Eight days later 
Massachusetts took the first move toward union, by call- 
ing for a Congress of the colonies to consider what action 
seemed best. This call was not heeded until the Assembly 
of South Carolina accepted the invitation and urged the 
other colonies to do likewise. But for this action of South 
Carolina no "Congress would then have happened." 

The Stamp Act Congress. — In October, 1765, the Con- 
gress called by Massachusetts met in New York, the 
South Carolina delegates being the first to arrive. The 
meeting was composed of twenty-eight representatives 
from nine of the colonies. They passed a Declaration 
of Rights, which was sent to the king and Parliament with 
a petition for a redress of grievances. The substance of 
this Declaration was that the Americans were English 
subjects and entitled to the same rights and privileges as 
the residents of England; and that there should be no 
taxation without representation. 

The repeal of the Stamp Act. — When the time came to 
put the Stamp Act into operation, ail the collectors had 
resigned. A number of English statesmen became con- 



156 OUR REPUBLIC 

vinced that the Stamp Act was an unwise, if not an un- 
just, measure. Edmund Burke questioned the wisdom 
of the tax, while the great Wilham Pitt questioned the 
right of Parhament to levy it. As a result, Parliament 
repealed the Stamp Act because it was unwise; but it 
clung to the view that Parliament had a right to tax the 
colonies as it pleased. This idea was expressed in what 
is known as the Declaratory Act. 

The Townshend Acts. — The colonists accepted with 
great joy the repeal of the Stamp Act. But in 1767 a 
series of acts, offered by Charles Townshend, passed 
Parliament. One of them levied a tax on all tea, lead, 
paper, glass, sugar, and wine imported into the colonies. 
The opposition to these acts was as great as to the Stamp 
Act. Again the people made agreements not to import 
English goods, and again representatives of the English 
Government were burned in effigy. 

Action by the colonies. — The General Court of Massa- 
chusetts issued a circular letter to all the colonies asking 
them to help in procuring the repeal of the Townshend 
Acts. The Assemblies of Virginia, North Carolina, South 
Carolina, and Georgia responded by the adoption of reso- 
lutions pledging their hearty support in this effort. All 
of these Assemblies were dissolved by their governors ac- 
cording to instructions from England. When the Vir- 
ginia Assembly was reconvened in 1769, it passed the 
celebrated " Resolves ", again declaring that the sole right 
of taxation belonged to the colonial legislatures. These 
resolutions were promptly endorsed by all the colonies. 

Riots in the colonies. — One night in March, 1770, an 
alarm of fire was given in Boston; and many citizens and 
soldiers rushed into the streets. Some citizens unfortu- 



STAMP ACT AND TOWNSHEND ACTS 157 

nately began to pelt the soldiers with snowballs. The 
soldiers became enraged and fired into the crowd, kill- 
ing five men. This is known in history as the Boston 
Massacre. A few weeks before this some British sol- 
diers had cut down a liberty pole in New York City. A 
riot had followed, which resulted in the death of one 
citizen. 

War with the royal governor in North Carolina. — In the 
midst of the revolutionary movement, some citizens of 
North Carolina, who believed themselves oppressed, had 
organized in various parts of the colony into bands called 
''Regulators." Appeal was then made to the governor for 
relief from excessive taxes, dishonest officials, and other 
abuses. But relief was not granted, and the ''Regula- 
tors" resorted to violence and rose in revolt. The As- 
sembly then declared them outlaws and Governor Tryon 
marched against them at the head of an army. At Ala- 
mance, in 1771, a battle was fought between the gov- 
ernor and the "Regulators." The victory lay with the 
governor, as many of the " Regulators " were practically 
unarmed. About thirty of them were killed in battle, 
and seven of the prisoners taken by the governor were 
hanged. 

Royal government hated in the South. — The Georgia As- 
sembly was made indignant because the governor would 
not permit it to choose its speaker. In South Carolina 
the people were aroused by the appointment of English- 
men to office and by instructions limiting the right of the 
Assembly in passing money bills. The governor of 
Maryland practically asserted the right to levy taxes. 
George III instructed the governor of Virginia to veto her 
law stopping the slave trade. Her petition to the king 



158 OUR REPUBLIC 

on this subject was '' the last prayer Virginia ever made 
to mortal man " (1772). 



CHAPTER XXXVIII ^ 

ENGLAND INSISTS ON THE RIGHT OF T-\XATION 

Repeal of the Townshend Acts. — When the Virginia 
Assembly was dissolved by the governor in 1769, the 
members agreed not to import any goods from England 
until the Townshend Acts had been repealed. Societies 
were formed in all the colonies to prevent the importa- 
tion of English goods. British merchants lost so much 
money by this, that Parliament finally repealed the 
Townshend Acts (1770). 

Tax on tea. — In repealing the Townshend Acts, 
Parliament still insisted on the right to tax the colonies 
and did not take the duty off of tea. To deceive the 
American people, it was arranged that no tax should 
be collected in England on tea sent to the colonies. As 
the colonial tax on tea was made less than that levied in 
England, American merchants could buy tea at a lower 
price (including the tax) than was paid by merchants in 
England. However, the Americans were not deceived 
and still refused to receive English goods. Ships loaded 
with tea were sent to all the principal American ports. 
In Boston some citizens disguised themselves as Indians 
and threw all the tea overboard into the harbor (1773). 
At Annapolis, Maryland, the owner of a ship, the Peggy 
Stewart, was forced to set fire to it because he had paid 
the tax on seventeen packages of tea in its cargo. The 



THE RIGHT OF TAXATION 



159 



North Carolinians declared that they could not ''suffer 
East India tea to be used in their families and would 
consider all persons who did so to be enemies of their 
country." At Edenton, certain patriotic ladies, in 1774, 
resolved that they 
would use no more 
tea while the tea 
tax lasted. The 
South Carolini- 
ans seized two 
hundred and fifty- 
seven chests of 
tea, which were 
sold for the bene- 
fit of the Revolu- 
tionary cause. 
Seven chests of 
tea were emptied 
into the Cooper 
River ''amid the 
acclamations of 
the people." 

A spirit of vio- 
lence and resist- 
ance was every- 
where found. A 

year before the destruction of the tea in Boston Harbor, 
the people of Rhode Island burned an English vessel, the 
Gaspee, which had been trying to catch New England 
smugglers. In every colony the citizens held meetings 
and organized to maintain their right not to be taxed 
except by their own representatives. 




Residents of Annapolis Watching the Burning 

OF THE Tea Ship "Peggy Stewart" 
After the wall painting by C. Y. Turner in the Balti- 
more Court House. By courtesy of the artist. 



160 



OUR REPUBLIC 



Five acts of Parliament. — The action of the citizens of 
Boston in destroying the tea, and of other colonies in re- 
sisting the law, so enraged Parliament that five important 
measures were passed (1774), in substance as follows: 

1. The Boston port was closed, and it was ordered that 
no vessel should trade with Boston until the tea had been 
paid for. 

2. The local government of Massachusetts was changed. 
Town meetings were abolished, and all officials were to be 
appointed by the governor. 

3. A colonial official or a soldier who killed any person 
in Massachusetts might be sent out of the colony for trial. 




The Boston Tea Party 



By this measure all royal officers and soldiers felt that 
they had nothing to fear from the people of Massachusetts. 

4. Citizens of Boston were compelled to take soldiers 
into their homes and feed them. 

5. All the country between the Ohio River and the 
Great Lakes was added to the province of Quebec. (This 



THE RIGHT OF TAXATION 161 

measure was a blow at the western territory of several of 
the colonies, Virginia especially.) 

Everywhere the people were aroused. Virginia ob- 
served the day on which the Boston Port was to be closed 
(June 1, 1774) as a time of "fasting and prayer." Many 
made contributions for the poor people of Boston. It is 
said "the donations from South Carolina exceeded, both' 
in money and supplies, any other colony, not excepting 
Massachusetts itself." 

Steps to union. — A system of correspondence between 
the towns of Massachusetts was begun in 1772. In 1773 
the House of Burgesses of Virginia appointed a com- 
mittee to correspond with all the colonies. Thus there 
was established a general correspondence by which each 
colony was kept in touch with the others. As a result 
of the five oppressive acts of Parliament, Virginia made 
a proposition to hold a general meeting of representa- 
tives from all the colonies to consider what should be 
done. This meeting was held (1774) in Carpenter's 
Hall, Philadelphia, and is known as the first Continental 
Congress. All the colonies were represented except 
Georgia, which was prevented by the royal governor 
from sending delegates. Among the leaders were Samuel 
Adams of Massachusetts, Richard Henry Lee and Pat- 
rick Henry of Virginia, Roger Sherman of Connecticut, 
and the Rutledges of South Carolina. The total mem- 
bership was fifty-five men, who represented the best 
American citizens. Peyton Randolph of Virginia was 
elected president of the meeting. About ten documents 
and resolutions were passed, declaring in one way or 
another that the English Government was mistreating its 
American colonies. Additional steps were taken to keep 



162 



OUR REPUBLIC 



all the colonies well posted about conditions throughout 
the country. In this meeting Patrick Henry said : "The 
distinctions between Virginians, Pennsylvanians, New 
Yorkers, and New Englanders are no more. I am not a 




Cakpenter's Mansion, Afterward Carpenter's Hall, Philadelphia 
From a contemporary lithograph. 

Yirginian, but an American." This Congress adjourned, 
to meet again in 1775. 

The resolutions and petitions passed by the Continental 
Congress were presented to the English Government. 
But George III would not concede that the Americans 
were in any way mistreated or had any just grievances. 
In the meantime, conditions in America were moving 
rapidly toward war. 



OPENING OF REVOLUTIONARY WAR, 1775 163 



CHAPTER XXXIX 

OPENING OF THE REVOLUTIONARY WAR, 1775 

General Gage in Boston. — General Gage, who had been 
sent to Boston with several regiments of soldiers, became 
military governor of Massachusetts. The Bostonians de- 
tested the troops and scorned the authority of the gov- 
ernor; and the whole province resented being placed 
under miUtary control. The colo- 
nists were rapidly becoming divided 
into two distinct factions — the To- 
ries, as they were called, who sided 
with the king; and the Patriots, who 
protested against his tyranny. The 
Patriots organized a provincial gov- 
ernment; and gradually and quietly 
citizens were enlisted and armed, 
ready to fight, if need be, at a minute's 
notice. They were called ''Minute- 
men." Meanwhile, arms and sup- 
plies were being assembled at Lex- 
ington and Concord. 

The battle of Lexington and Con- 
cord. — The British planned to march 
secretly from Boston to Concord, to 
capture Samuel Adams and John 
Hancock at Lexington and to seize the military stores at 
Concord. But for the timely warning given by Paul 
Revere, a silversmith of Boston, they might have suc- 
ceeded. Revere had arranged with friends in Boston 




A Minute-Man 
After the statue by Dan- 
iel French, in Concord. 
On the pedestal are 
engraved Emerson's 
lines: 

" By the rude bridge that arched 
the flood. 

Its folds to April's breeze un- 
furled, 

Here the embattled farmer 
stood, 

And fired the shot heard 'round 
the world." 



164 



OUR REPUBLIC 



that in the event of any movement of the British troops, 
a signal hght should be shown in the tower of Old North 




The Stone Marking the Line of the Minute-Men at Concord 
Engraved with Captain Parker's command. 

Church. As soon as he saw the gleam, he rode swiftly 
toward Lexington and Concord, shouting to every house- 
hold to prepare for the coming of the British. 

When the British appeared at Lexington, more than 
fifty minute-men were already on the village green, and 
Adams and Hancock had disappeared. The British com- 
mander. Major Pitcairn, rode forward and shouted 
to them, ''Disperse, ye rebels!" They refused to obey, 
and he ordered his men to fire. Sixteen fell dead. The 
others returned the fire and then escaped from the 
green. Thereupon, the British pushed on to Concord, 
hoping to seize the ammunition and stores. They found, 
however, that everything had been removed. On their 
way back to Boston, they were fired upon by the minute- 



OPENING OF REVOLUTIONARY WAR, 1775 165 

men from behind fences and out of ambush. In the 
fight that day (April 19, 1775) the British lost about 
three hundred soldiers, and the Americans about ninety- 
three. 

Anti-British movements in the spring of 1775. -While 
Massachusetts was in open conflict with the British, the 
feeling against British rule was growing stronger in all 
the colonies. In Virginia steps had been taken to resist 
Lord Dunmore, the British governor. Patrick Henry 
had introduced resolutions in the Virginia convention, 
to raise troops with which to fight the governor. 




The British Retreat from Concord 



"The next gale that sweeps from the North will 
bring to our ears the clash of resounding arms," said 
Henry — prophetic words, for they were spoken about a 
month before the battle of Lexington and Concord. 
Acting upon Henry's resolutions, Virginia raised two 



166 



OUR REPUBLIC 



companies of troops. Governor Dunmore had seized 
some gunpowder that belonged to the colony; but 
Henry led an armed force in the direction of Williams- 

burg, and the 
governor paid for 
the powder. 

On May 10th 
a body of New 
England troops 
under Ethan Al- 
len marched into 
northern New 
York and took 
Forts Ticonde- 
roga and Crown 
Point. 

The Georgia 
Patriots seized a 
quantity of pow- 
der (May 11, 1775) and prevented a celebration of the 
king's birthday. They also commissioned a schooner 
which helped to capture a British vessel with about 16,000 
pounds of powder. The South Carolinians captured a 
British ship with nearly 12,000 pounds of powder. Geor- 
gia was the first Southern colony to commission a ship 
for use in the war (1775). South Carolina equipped her 
own navy of eleven ships, and North Carolina and Vir- 
ginia also had a small number of ships. Maryland 
equipped privateers, '' by some estimated at two hundred 
and fifty or more." In 1775 all the colonies were mak- 
ing preparations for armed resistance. 




St. John's Church, Richmond 

Here Patrick Henry spoke before the Virginia 

Convention. 



THE ORGANIZATION OF AN ARMY, 1775 167 
CHAPTER XL 

THE ORGANIZATION OF AN ARMY, 1775 

The Second Continental Congress. — May 10, 1775, the 
second Continental Congress met in Philadelphia, in the 
state house now known as Independence Hall. John 
Hancock of Massachusetts was elected president of the 
convention. Congress at once proceeded to order mih- 
tary supplies and to organize an army, of which Colonel 
George Washington of Virginia was made commander-in- 
chief. The New England militia were regarded as a part 
of the army, and Washington set off at once to Boston to 
take charge of the force assembled there. This Congress 
had no authority to do anything; but it assumed the au- 
thority, believing that the colonies would approve its action. 

Battle of Bunker Hill. — Before Washington could reach 
Boston, the New England militia had shut the British 
up in that city. Learning that the British intended 
to fortify Bunker Hill, the Patriots fortified Breed's Hill, 
which lay between Bunker Hill and Boston. When Gen- 
eral Gage, the British commander, observed this, he sent 
a detachment of three thousand men, under General 
Howe, to dislodge them. Here on June 17th, occurred a 
bloody struggle. The brave British troops charged up 
the hill until they were within fifty yards of the Ameri- 
can line. The Americans, who with equal bravery had 
stood without firing a gun, then poured a terrific volley 
into the British ranks. The British retired and charged 
again. But they were again driven back with great 
slaughter. A third charge followed; and this time the 



168 OUR REPUBLIC 

Americans, for want of ammunition, were forced to 
leave the hill. It was a desperate struggle and cost the 
Americans four hundred and forty-nine of their bravest 
men. Among the slain was General Warren, a Boston 
physician who had been president of the Provincial Con- 
gress of Massachusetts before he was put in command 
of her forces. 




'" The Battle of Bunker Hill " 

Soldiers from the British ships march up Bunker Hill,' and the British burn 

Charlestown. — From an English print made soon after the battle. 

Washington in command of the troops. — Early in July 
Washington reached Cambridge, Massachusetts; and 
there, under an old elm tree near Harvard College, the 
young Virginia colonel assumed command of a body of 
brave but untrained men. He was soon joined by troops 
from the South. A portion of these were led by Daniel 
Morgan, whose banner contained the memorable words 
of Patrick Henry, ''Give me liberty or give me death!" 

1 The battle was fought on Breed's Hill, but by an errw has always been 
called the liattle of Bunker Hill. 



THE ORGANIZATION OF AN ARMY, 1775 169 



Washington was a calm, cool calculator. His policy 
was not to rush madly into battle, but to train his troops 
and be ready to take ad- 
vantage of any mistake 
the British might make. 
The first difficulty that 
confronted him was to 
control an army made 
up of farmers and others 
who were away from 
their work and their 
families. They were all 
anxious to fight and go 
home. A second great 
difficulty was that the 
colonies had not really 
formed a nation, so that 
Congress had no positive 
authority to raise troops, 
to coin money, or to en- 
force any acts of govern- 
ment. It had to depend 
upon the goodwill of each 
of the colonies. A third 
great difficulty was the 
securing of arms. The best 
cannon that Washington 
had were those that were 
seized at Ticonderoga by Ethan Allen. ^ (Page 166.) 

Throughout all the summer and fall of 1775, Washing- 

' Powder was hard to get, as the British Government had not allowed 
the colonists to make powder. The colonists had only what they seized 



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In the buckskin garb (adapted from In- 
dian dress) of a frontiersman. Many 
of Washington's soldiers wore similar 
dress for lack of cloth uniforms. At 
Morgan's right hangs his powder horn. 



170 



OUR REPUBLIC 



ton planned to keep the British shut up in Boston and 
at the same time to train his men. 

The American invasion of Canada. — Washington feared 
an invasion from Canada; and to prevent this, he thought 




The Campaign around Boston 
SHowing: (1) the British march to Concord; (2) the encampment of Wash- 
ington's army during the following months. 

it would be a good plan to attack Quebec. In the fall 
of 1775 he sent General Montgomery with a small army 



from the British. In a small fort in New Hampshire the British had 
stored some powder. One night this fort was surprised by twenty-eight 
Patriots, who captured ninety-seven barrels of powder. This was six 
months before the battle of Lexington. Some of this powder was used 
at Bunker Hill. In August, 1775, the powder supply was so low that 
the soldiers in Washington's army had only nine charges each. An 
appeal was made to the New Hampshire Patriots, who then sent to Wash- 
ington's army all the powder they had left. Much powder was also sent 
from Georgia and South Carohna (page 166) . 



WAR IN THE SOUTH, 1776 171 

into Canada. Other troops under Benedict Arnold and 
Daniel Morgan were to aid in this invasion. The attack 
on Quebec failed. Montgomery was killed, and the 
Americans were forced to give up this undertaking. 



CHAPTER XLI 

WAR IN THE SOUTH, 1776 

War in Virginia. — ^In Virginia at the close of 1775, 
Governor Dunmore was still at war with the Vii-ginia 
militia. He was defeated at the battle of Great Bridge, 
near Norfolk, by the Virginians under General Woodford 
and the North Carolinians under Colonel Robert Howe. 
Dunmore then burned Norfolk and, with a British fleet, 
plundered the counties along Chesapeake Bay. Finally, 
July, 1776, he was driven out of the colony. 

War in North Carolina. — In February, 1776, an impor- 
tant battle was won in North Carolina by the Patriots. 
Governor Martin planned for a rising of the Scotch High- 
landers, who believed that the British Government should 
be supported; they were to join him at Wilmington, and 
assist a large British fleet and army in subduing North 
Carolina and the rest of the South. About fifteen hundred 
of these Highlanders assembled at what is now Fayette- 
ville and marched toward Wilmington; but a small body 
of Patriots, led by Colonels Caswell and Lillington, met 
them at Moore's Creek and totally defeated them, thus 
thwarting an important British plan and saving the 
Patriot cause in the South. 

War in South Carolina. — About the middle of the year, 
a British fleet attempted to capture Charleston. But 



172 



OUR REPUBLIC 



the Patriots had built on Sullivan's Island, in Charleston 
harbor, a fort of palmetto logs, which they fortified with 
thirty guns. They called it Fort Moultrie, after its 
commander. The fort was attacked by the British (June 
28th). Though the king's troops had ten times as many 
guns as the Patriots, they could make no impression 
upon the fort; for the balls buried 
themselves in the soft palmetto logs. 
In this fight a British ball cut 
down the flag of South Carolina; and 
Sergeant Jasper, leaping down over 
the side of the fort, seized the flag, 
fastened it to a pole, and replaced it 
on the ramparts. For this brave deed 

the was offered a lieutenant's com- 
mission; but he refused it, feeling 
^ ^ that he was better fitted to serve his 

country as a sergeant. He said that 
he could not read or write, and felt 
unworthy to associate with officers. 

After a day of hard fighting, the 
British sailed away. The battle of 
Moore's Creek and the struggle ofl" 
Charleston left the Carolinas free from British inter- 
ference for two years. 





William Moultrie 



CHAPTER XLII 

AVASHIXGTON'S CAMPAIGNS, 1776— THE DECLARATION 
OF INDEPENDENCE 



The British leave Boston. — Throughout the winter 
(1775-76) Washington was drawing the lines tighter and 



THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE 173 

tighter around Boston. In March (1776) his forces 
seized and fortified Dorchester Heights overlooking the 
city. Thereupon General Howe, then in command of the 
royal troops, withdrew his army from Boston, sailing first 
to Halifax in Nova Scotia. Washington, believing that 
the British would attempt to occupy New York City, 
moved his army there. 

Efforts at reconciliation, — The Continental Congress 
was still in session. It still desired to make terms with the 
mother country. It sent to England, by Richard Penn, 
a Tory, a careful and moderate statement of the griev- 
ances of the colonies. But George III was angry. He 
said that the Americans were only rebels, and he would 
not listen to anything they had to say. He sent twenty 
thousand more troops to America, chiefly Hessians hired 
in Germany. He could have done nothing more tact- 
less; for this forced the Americans into more radical 
measures. 

Steps to independence, — Events were moving rapidly 
towards independence. In May, 1775, the citizens of 
Mecklenburg County,' North Carolina, had met at Char- 
lotte, and, after passing resolutions of independence, re- 
solved to set up a county government "independent of 
Great Britain". Practically all the colonies in 1776 had 
their own governments by conventions in opposition to 
their old royal governments. South Carolina in March, 
1776, had established an independent government with 
John Rutledge as president. On April 12, 1776, the 
North Carolina convention instructed its delegates in 
Congress to concur with those of the other colonies in 
declaring independence. A little later the Virginia 
Convention of 1776 passed a resolution instructing its 



174 



OUR REPUBLIC 



delegates to propose that the colonies should declare 
themselves free and independent. 

The Declaration of Independence. — In obedience to 
instructions from the convention of his State, Richard 
Henry Lee of Virginia, on the 7th of June, 1776, moved 
in Congress 'Hhat these United Colonies are, and of 
right ought to be, free and independent States, and that 
all political connection between them and the State of 




The State House, or Independence Hall, Philadelphia 
As it looked when the Declaration of Independence was signed there. 

Great Britain is, and ought to be, dissolved." These 
resolutions were adopted, and a committee was appointed 
to draft a declaration of independence. 

The honor of writing this declaration fell to Thomas 
Jefferson of Virginia, the youngest member of the com- 
mittee. It was adopted on the 4th of July, 1776, and 
was later signed by all the members of Congress except 



WASHINGTON'S CAMPAIGNS, 1776 



175 



John Dickinson of Pennsylvania. Thus by formal act 
Congress assumed the right to sever connection between 
England and the colonies. Henceforth they were known, 
not as colonies, but as the United States of America. 

The British attack 
New York. — Hardly 
had the Declaration 
of Independence been 
proclaimed before 
Lord Howe, at the 
head of a large British 
force of about thirty 




The Campaigns around New York and Philadelphia 



thousand troops, entered New York harbor and occupied 
Staten Island. Washington had but eighteen thousand 
men. In August he met Howe in battle on Long Island 



176 



OUR REPUBLIC 



and came near losing his army; but by skillful general- 
ship, on a foggy night he succeeded in crossing the East 
River into New York. He retreated to White Plains/ 
crossed the Hudson River, and took up his position in 




The British Force Taking Harlem Heights on Manhattan Island 

New Jersey. The British occupied New York, and 
seized Fort Washington on Manhattan Island and Fort 
Lee on the opposite side of the Hudson. 



'■ Before Washington left New York, he desired to know the strength 
of the British. This meant that he wished some one to go as a spy into 
Long Ishxnd. The undertaking was so perilous that no one at first offered 
to go. Finally, a brave young officer, Nathan Hale, a graduate of Yale 
College and a school-teacher, decided that it was his duty to his country 
to go into the British lines. Disguised as a teacher, he went to Long 
Island. For two weeks he gathered information; but just as he was 
about to escape, he was recognized by a Tory and arrested. He was 
treated with all kinds of indignities; he was not allowed a Bible, and 
his letters to his mother and sweetheart were torn to pieces before his 
eyes. He was hanged as a spy. As he was led out to his fate, he said, 
"I only regret that I have but one life to lose for my country." 



WASHINGTON'S CAMPAIGNS, 1776 177 

After Washington had retreated into New Jersey, 
there were still left on the east side of the Hudson seven 
thousand of his troops under the command of General 
Charles Lee, a native Englishman. Washington ordered 
Lee also to cross the Hudson and come into New Jersey. 
Lee had hoped to be commander-in-chief of the army 
himself; and now, not approving of Washington's retreat 
into New Jersey, he refused to obey. Meantime, Wash- 
ington was pursued out of New^ Jersey and was forced 
to cross the Delaware River into Pennsylvania. Lee 
then crossed the Hudson into northern New Jersey, and 
was captured; but, fortunately for the Americans, his 
troops crossed the Delaware and joined Washington. 

Washington then had an army of only five thousand 
men. Many of his soldiers had gone home; some of them 
because their terms of enlistment had ended, others 
because they had nothing to live on, and still others 
because they felt compelled to return to their families. 

The battle of Trenton. — It looked as if all were lost. 
But W^ashington determined to make a bold stroke. He 
knew that there was a large body of Hessian troops in 
Trenton, New Jersey; and he determined to cross the 
Delaware River and attack them on Christmas night, 
while they were absorbed in their Christmas jollity. In 
small boats, through falling snow and floating ice, he 
crossed with two thousand men. At daylight he reached 
Trenton and surprised the Hessians, putting them com- 
pletely to rout and seizing a large quantity of arms. A 
thousand prisoners were captured, and many Hessians 
were killed. Washington at once returned to the Penn- 
sylvania side of the river, and this move ended the cam- 
paigns of 1776. 



178 



OUR REPUBLIC 




Paper Currency Issued by the 
Continental Congress 



The close of 1776. — The outlook for American success 
was not encouraging. In the first place, the States 
themselves were not united. In every one there were 

many Tories. Although 
the Tories were in the 
minority, they kept the 
majority from sending 
troops to fight the British. 
Among the Patriots many 
were Quakers who, not be- 
lieving in war, would not 
join the army. There was 
no money but the paper 
currency issued by Con- 
gress, which was practically worthless. Merchants would 
not take it in exchange for supplies, and the soldiers 
would not take it as pay. There 
was little ammunition, and the 
army lacked even teams to haul 
supplies. But for the help of Rob- 
ert Morris, one of the wealthiest 
men of Philadelphia, the army 
would probably have been com- 
pelled to disband. Morris raised 
fifty thousand dollars in gold and 
silver on his personal credit to pay 
the soldiers and to furnish the army. Robert Morris 

But at the close of 76, everything 

pointed to the failure of the Patriot cause. The only 
encouraging incidents had been the battle of Trenton and 
the failures of the British in the Carolinas. 




EVENTS OF THE YEAR 1777 



179 



CHAPTER XLIII 

EVENTS OF THE YEAR 1777 

The battle of Princeton. — After the battle of Trenton, 
Washington remained in Pennsylvania only a few days. 
He again crossed into New Jersey and fell upon the British 
under CornwaUis at Princeton. So wisely did he plan, 
that M^hen he made his attack at sunrise, on January 3, 
1777, the British were completely surprised. The people 
of New Jersey were so delighted at this success that the 
militia went actively into service. Washington went 
into winter quarters at Morristown Heights. The British 
gradually left New Jersey, returning to New York City. 
This city they held till the end of the war, making it 
their base of supplies. 

The short and decisive cam- 
paign that Washington waged in 
New Jersey in the dead of winter 
showed that he could be an ag- 
gressive leader as well as a 
master of defense. The cam- 
paign had a wholesome influence, 
and Washington found it pos- 
sible to secure many recruits for 
his disorganized army. There 
was great need of money for 
both the war and the govern- 
ment, and the success in New 

Jersey stimulated a number of Patriots to make con- 
tributions for the support of the army. Washington led 
in this patriotic movement by pledging his entire estate 




Baron Steuben 

Who taught military tactics to 

the Continental army. 



180 



OUR REPUBLIC 




for the support of the Revolutionary cause. This success 
also brought to America a number of brave European 
officers to help the colonists in their struggle for freedom. 
Among them were the Marquis de Lafayette of France; 

Baron de Kalb, a 
Bavarian who had 
served in the French 
army; and Baron 
Steuben, a distin- 
guished Prussian 
officer whom we re- 
member as the great 
drill master of the 
American soldiers. 

The British plan 
of campaign. — The 
British then planned 
a double campaign. 
First, they hoped to 
conquer all of New 
York State and thus 
separate New Eng- 
land from the rest 
of the country. 
Second, they desired 
to capture Philadel- 
phia, the capital of 
the new government, and, if possible, to capture the 
members of the Congress. 

Burgoyne's campaign and defeat. — General Burgoyne 
marched from Canada with the idea of seizing the Hud- 
son valley. He first took Fort Ticonderoga. As he 



Burgoyne's Campaign 



EVENTS OF THE YEAR 1777 181 

marched south from Ticonderoga, he was opposed by 
General Schuyler, who ordered that trees and other 
obstructions be put in the roads. This forced Burgoyne 
to march so slowly that his provisions became scarce. 
Thereupon he sent Colonel Baum at the head of a Hessian 
force to look for provisions in Vermont, and to secure 
some Tory recruits. This force was defeated at Ben- 
nington, Vermont, by a small body of Americans headed 
by General John Stark. ^ When, therefore, Burgoyne 
reached Saratoga, his resources were much reduced; and 
the failure of other English forces to come up placed 
him in an awkward position. 

Opposing him was an army of Americans under the 
command of General Schuyler, assisted by Benedict 
Arnold and Daniel Morgan. Just at this point, jealousy 
in Congress between the New York and New England 
factions caused the removal of Schuyler and the appoint- 
ment of General Horatio Gates in his stead. ^ Gates 

* A saying of General Stark, made as he was about to engage in battle, 
has been quoted for many generations: "There are the redcoats! We 
must beat them to-day or Molly Stark is a widow." 

' At this time it was very difficult to get soldiers for the American 
cause. The fact that Burgoyne had some Indian aUies who burned and 
pillaged everywhere and who put to death and scalped a beautiful girl, 
Jane McCrea, made some, out of fear of the Indians, join the army. The 
story is told that a httle boy, Richard Lord Jones of Connecticut, only 
ten years old, hearing of the great need of troops, volunteered. He was 
accepted and put under the charge of the bandmaster and was soon the 
best fifer in his corps. Shortly after, he was taken prisoner. The British 
officer inquired, "Who are you?" "One of King Hancock's men," 
the boy rephed. "Can you fight one of King George's men?" he was 
asked. "Yes, sir," Richard replied, slowly adding, "if he is not much 
bigger than I." Thereupon, the officer called the son of one of the ship's 
crew, a boy twelve years old, and commanded the two to strip and fight. 
It was a hard fight, first one and then the other on top. At last the 



182 



• OUR REPUBLIC 




was very inefficient; and it is doubtful whether he would 
have succeeded but for the assistance rendered him by 
Arnold and Morgan, who pushed to the rear of the British 
army. Burgoyne saw that he was surrounded, and 
surrendered (October 17, 1777) 
about six thousand prisoners and 
a large quantity of war supplies. 

This victory was of supreme im- 
portance to the Americans, as it 
gave them hope of success. The 
British had failed to get possession 
of New York and thus separate the 
middle States from New England. 

War in Pennsylvania. — The second 
part of the campaign of the British 
was to capture Philadelphia so that 
they might control the Delaware 
River. In August, 1777, Howe ad- 
vanced upon Philadelphia with an 
army of eighteen thousand men. 
The Americans first made a stand 
at Brandywine. Here they were 
defeated with a loss of about one 
thousand men. At this battle Lafay- 
ette was wounded. Washington was forced to retreat 
to Philadelphia, then a few days later to evacuate the 
city. Howe took possession of the capital (September, 
1777), but Congress had fled. In October, Washington 




Crown and Effigy of 

George II 
Torn from the wall of 
Christ Church, Phila- 
delphia, after the Dec- 
laration of Independ- 
ence was signed. 



English boy cried, "Enough!" The British officer was so pleased with 
Richard that he released the young prisoner. Richard lived to be an 
old man. It was always a delight for him to tell liis grandson how he 
fought the English boy. 



EVENTS OF THE YEAR 1777 183 

attacked the main division of the British army at 
Germantown, and was severely defeated. 

For the next two months Washington remained 
north of Philadelphia, watching the British army and 
finally going into wdnter quarters at Valley Forge 
in Pennsylvania. 

Attempt to remove "Washington. — Some of the New 
Englanders, among them Samuel Adams and John Han- 
cock, began to talk against Washington. They believed 
that Horatio Gates was a greater general. General Con- 
way formed a conspiracy, known as the ''Conway Cabal," 
to have Gates appointed com- 
mander-in-chief of the Continen- 
tal army. Among those who 
wished to see Washington re- 
moved from command was that 
General Charles Lee who had the 
year before disobeyed Washing- 
ton in not retreating across the 

Benjamin Franklin 
Hudson. However, throughout a portrait modeled while 

the whole winter at Valley Franklin was in France 

Forge, Washington's bravery and forbearance won him 
the entire confidence of Congress, and caused the utter 
failure of the plans of the ''Conway Cabal." 

French alliance. — France hated England, and her own 
republican party w^as eager for a chance to help the Ameri- 
cans. Shortly after the Declaration of Independence^ 
Benjamin Franklin was sent to Paris. Wherever he went 
he was received with great favor. He had an old brown 
coat that he said he would wear till independence was 
won ; and whenever he went on the streets dressed in this 
coat, crowds gathered to see the great American. 




184 OUR REPUBLIC 

When Burgoyne's defeat was known in France, Frank- 
lin persuaded King Louis XVI to aid the Americans; 
and soon (1778) a treaty of alliance was signed. Frank- 
lin was able to borrow monej' in France to help the 
Continental army. 



CHAPTER XLIV 

THE WAR XORTH AND SOUTH IN 1778 

The winter at Valley Forge. — The American army 
suffered terrible hardships while in winter quarters at 
Valley Forge. After the British occupation of Philadel- 
phia, the powers of Congress 
grew less and less. It was un- 
able to borrow money, and to 
furnish supplies to Washington's 
army. His men had little to eat 
and very scanty clothing. It is 
said that a quantity of supplies 

Washington's Headquarters Were Collected withiu thirty mileS 

AT Valley Forge ^^ Valley Forge, but that there 

Now preserved by the Valley , , , , , j. 4.u„ 

Forge Park Commission. WerC UO tcamS to haul them tO the 

encampment. Frequently the 
bare feet of the men left blood stains on the snow. There 
were not log huts enough to accommodate the soldiers, 
and numbers had to sleep in the snow by the camp fires. 
Many of them died that winter, and some deserted. 

No one had any faith in Congress; but, remarkable to 
relate, Washington never despaired of final success. 
Baron Steuben trained the soldiers during the entire 
winter; and when spring came, in spite of deaths and 




THE WAR NORTH AND SOUTH IN 1778 185 

hardships, those who had Uved through the terrible crisis 
were better soldiers than ever before. With spring there 
came also renewed hope; for French ships were on the 
way to help the Americans gain their independence. 

Change of British plans. — When the British learned 
of the coming of the French, General Clinton, who had 
superseded- General Howe, withdrew from Philadelphia 
and marched to the British stronghold, New York. 
On the way he was attacked by Washington at Mon- 





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In Camp at Valley Forge 

mouth. New Jersey. The British would have been 
totally destroyed but for the treachery of General Charles 
Lee, who for no cause whatever ordered his division of 
six thousand men to retreat. Washington came up and 
in great fury rebuked Lee, re-formed the troops, and saved 
the day. During the night the British withdrew and 
succeeded in reaching New York.^ 

' General Charles Lee was then court-martialed and dismissed from serv- 
ice. It was fortunate for the Americans; for many years after the Revolu- 



186 OUR REPUBLIC 

War in the South. — When the British, returning to 
New York, agreed upon a new plan of campaign beginning 
with Georgia, they hoped to conquer the colonies — 
England had never acknowledged that they were other 
than colonies still — one by one, and force them into 
submission. According to this plan, a British fleet 
appeared before Savannah in the latter part of 1778. 
As there was only a small American force to resist the 
attack, the town fell into the hands of Colonel Camp- 
bell, the British commander (December 29th). 

The close of the year. — After the battle of Monmouth 
little fighting was done in the North. ^ The French 
fleet, under Count d'Estaing, made an effort to capture 
New York. Failing in this, it made an unsuccessful 
attempt to capture Newport, Rhode Island. Then the 
fleet retired to Boston, having suffered from a severe 
storm and needing repairs. Washington waited in New 
Jersey between Philadelphia and New York, watching 
the British and preventing them from leaving New York 
City to attack other parts of the country. He went into 
winter quarters in New Jersey. The year 1778 had not 
been disastrous to the Americans. Though Savannah 

tion, papers were discovered which proved that, when Lee was captured 
in 1777 (page 177), he had turned traitor to the extent of furnishing Howe 
plans to enable him to take Philadelphia. 

1 While Washington was watching the British, Tories in western New 
York were burning and pillaging. With some Iroquois Indian allies, 
they massacred the Patriots of Cherry valley, New York. While the 
men of Wyoming valley in Pennsylvania were away with Washington, 
Tories fell upon the defenseless women and children, burning some alive 
and torturing others for hours. General Sullivan was sent by Washing- 
ton to break up these bands of murderers. The Indians were routed 
near Elmira, New York, and the power of the Iroquois was finally f 
destroyed. 



THE WINNING OF THE WEST 



187 



was lost, Philadelphia was regained and the British were 
driven out of the great Northwest. Lack of suppUes and 
money was the most discouraging condition. 



CHAPTER XLV 

THE WINNING OF THE WEST 

Western migration. — W^hile the war was going on 
along the Atlantic coast, north and south, some people 
were thinking of the country west of the Appalachian 
Mountains. There were 



not many settlers in this 
great territory. About the 
time of the passage of the 
Stamp Act, in 1765, some 
pioneers had crossed these 
mountains and explored the 
country along the Tennessee 
and the Ohio River. Among 
those who went into this 
wild region were John Sevier 
and James Robertson. A 
settlement was formed at 
Watauga (1769), which is 
not far from the present city 
of Knoxville. The settlers 
came chiefly from North 
Carolina and Virginia. 

When Governor Try on of North Carolina began to 
oppress the people with burdensome taxes, many of 
them moved westward to get out of his reach. One of 





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Daniel Boone, the Pioneer to 
Kentucky 



188 



OUR REPUBLIC 




these emigrants was Daniel Boone, who had gone to 
North Carohna from Pennsylvania. After a number 
of years of exploration, he went into Kentucky and settled 

with his family and 
a few friends at 
Boonesboro (1775). 
Many were Boone's 
experiences in fight- 
ing with the Indians. 
Several times he was 
captured, but man- 
aged to escape.^ 
Frequently his little 
settlement was on 
the point of destruc- 
tion. 

Many Georgia 
patriots, being dis- 
gusted with the 
English governor of 
that colony, moved westward into the districts that are 
now Alabama and Mississippi. 

Just before the Revolutionary War (1774), General An- 

' On one occasion Boone was taken prisoner and carried to the home 
cf the Indians near the Great Lakes. He was adopted into the tribe by 
Iiaving his hair slowly pulled out by the roots, after which he was 
washed in a stream to rid him of his white blood. He was such a fine 
shot that the Indians allowed him to keep his rifle, that he might kill 
game for them, but gave him very little ammunition. One day, hearing 
that the Indians were planning to go to Boonesboro and destroy the 
place, Boone determined to escape. Going into the forest on the pre- 
tence of hunting, he rushed wildly southward and after four days reached 
Boonesboro. He had traveled one hundred and sixty miles, and on 
the way had eaten only one meal, a wild turkey that he had shot. 



The Settlement at Boo>fESBORO 
Typical of pioneer times. The houses themselves 
form part of the palisade; and a blockhouse, 
or fort, stands at each corner. — From Boone's 
sketch. 



THE WINNING OF THE WEST 



189 



drew Lewis, commanding a force of Virginians, crushed 
the Indians at Point Pleasant on the Ohio River and made 
the Ohio region available for English settlements. Within 
two years there was such a large number of settlements 
in Kentucky that it was organized as a county of Vir- 




The Pioneer Route to the West and the Frontier Settlements 



ginia. Among the first representatives sent to the 
Mrginia legislature was George Rogers Clark. 

Under the Quebec Act (page 160), the British Gov- 
ernment had annexed all the territory north of the 
Ohio River to the province of Quebec and established 
garrisons at Vincennes in what is now Indiana, and at 
Ivaskaskia and Cahokia in Illinois. All this territory 
was claimed by Virginia, though it was occupied by the 
British. The white people living in this region, how- 



190 OUR REPUBLIC 

ever, were chiefly French, who had occupied the country 
before 1760. 

War in the West. — George Rogers Clark pointed out 
the necessity of driving the British out of the territory 
between the Ohio River and the Great Lakes. With a 
commission from Governor Patrick Henry of Virginia, 
he raised four companies of troops in that State, chiefly 
in the counties west of the Blue Ridge Mountains and 
in the county of Kentucky. With these troops he 
pushed into Illinois, and took Kaskaskia and Cahokia 
(1778). After a hard march through the drowned lands 
of the Wabash, he took Vincennes (1779) and sent Colonel 
Hamilton, the British commander, a prisoner to Williams- 
burg. Thus by the bravery of George Rogers Clark and 
his Virginia troops all this western territory was saved 
to the United States. Illinois became a county in Vir- 
ginia (1778) and remained so until it was given to the 
general government. 

CHAPTER XLVI 

EVENTS OF THE YEAR 1779 

The British plans. — -Washington had been far more 
successful in his conduct of the war than the colonists 
realized. By the beginning of 1779 the British were 
practically driven out of the States of New York and New 
Jersey and out of Philadelphia. It is true that they held 
New York City, but they could make no headway 
against Washington. You remember that the British 
had, at the close of 1778, succeeded in taking Savannah 
(page 186). In the spring of 1779 they determined to 



EVENTS OF THE YEAR 1779 



191 



renew their effort to subdue all of the Southern colonies. 
In doing this, they hoped to draw Washington from the 
vicinity of New York, and then to get control of New 
York Sta*te, New Jersey, and Pennsylvania. 

War in the South. — During the year the fighting in the 
South was chiefly in Georgia. Colonel Campbell of the 
British army had taken Savannah, with the aid of some 
Tories. In the meantime the British had sent General 
Prevost to take charge of the ''Province of Georgia." 
The American troops in the South were placed under 
General Benjamin Lincoln; but 
the British gained control of all 
the important points in Georgia. 
In September a French force 
joined General Lincoln in laying 
siege to Savannah. In a des- 
perate assault on the city, the 
Americans were repulsed and 
lost Count Pulaski, a Polish 
patriot, and Sergeant Jasper, 
who had distinguished himself 
at Fort Moultrie. The French 
commander, D'Estaing, thought it best to give up the 
siege of Savannah; so he took his men aboard his ships 
and sailed away. General Lincoln was forced to with- 
draw to Charleston, South Carolina, leaving Georgia in 
the hands of the British. 

Washington's work in 1779. — When the British moved 
southward in the spring, Washington still remained in 
New Jersey, watching New Y'ork City and hoping to 
recapture it. About all the fighting done in the North 
was the capture by the Americans of two forts on the 




General Benjamin 
Lincoln 



192 OUR REPUBLIC 

Hudson. At Stony Point there was a strong British for- 
tification (see map, page 175). In the dead of night (July 
15th) the daring General Anthony Wayne with one thou- 
sand men seized the fort. All the stores and cannon were 
captured, and the fort was destroyed. At Paulus Hook 
also, now Jersey City, the British had built a fort. This 
was captured by Major Henry Lee on August 19th, and 
a number of the garrison were made prisoners. 

The beginnings of the American navy. — As soon as the 
Declaration of Independence had been adopted. Congress 





Medal rKi:.>i-.>i i i^u to John Paul Jones by the Congress of the 
United States 
The portrait in relief was modeled from life by the French sculptor Houdoii. 

attempted to get together a navy by buying some vessels. 
Ships owned by private citizens (called privateers) 
were also given authority by Congress to plunder the 
merchant vessels of the enemy. Among those who 
commanded ships fitted out by Congress was John Paul 
Jones. 1 As early as 1777 he was working havoc on 

' John Paul was born in Scotland. When a lad he became a sailor, 
and crossed and recrossed the Atlantic. Sometimes his vessel went to 
Virginia for tobacco; sometimes to Africa for slaves. He had a brother 
in Virginia, and on his death John Paul came to Virginia to take charge 
of the plantation. There he changed his name to Jones. With the 



EVENTS OF THE YEAR 1779 193 

English merchant vessels in the English and Irish channels 
and off the coast of Scotland. In September, 1779, with 
his vessel, the Bon Homme Richard, he met in battle the 
English man-of-war, the Serapis. After a desperate 
fight the Serapis was captured; but the fight cost the 
loss of the Bo7i Homme Richard, which was sunk. Never- 
theless, it was a victory, and an important one. It gave 
the Americans a reputation as good fighters on the sea. 
It also brought on war between England and Holland; 
f(jr Jones took the Serapis into a Dutch port, whereupon 
England demanded that the Dutch surrender the ship. 
This, Holland refused to do; and at once England began 
to plunder Dutch commerce, and war followed. Thus on 
the sea England was fighting the allied countries of 
France and Spain, and also Holland and all the privateers 
chartered by Congress. English commerce was in great 
danger. These conditions prevented England from send- 
ing many troops to America. Although England then 
had a standing army of about three hundred thousand, 
she did not have on American soil at any one time more 
than thirty-five thousand troops; and a large percentage 
of these were Hessian mercenaries. 

opening of the Revolution he offered his services to Congress, and was 
given command of the ship Alfred. He hoisted the American flag on this 
vessel, the first American flag ever to fly over a ship. It was not the 
American flag of to-day, but the stars and bars with " the pine tree and 
rattlesnake emblem" on it with the words: "Don't tread on me." The 
next vessel under Paul Jones was the Ranger. Once the English vessel 
Drake hailed her and asked what vessel. The reply came back, "The 
American Continental Ranger. Come on, we are waiting for you." After 
an hour's fight, the Drake surrendered. After the Revolution Paul Jones 
lived most of the time in Russia and France. He died in Paris in 1792. 
His body was brought to this country in 1905 by Ambassador Horace 
Porter, to be interred at Annapolis, Maryland. 



194 



OUR REPUBLIC 








• A* 4. 



The close of 1779. — As far as the war was concerned, 
the year 1779 closed with much hope for the Americans. 
In the South the Enghsh had secured Georgia, but in the 

North they had 
lost ground. On 
the high seas 
England was en- 
gaged in war 
with three coun- 
tries besides the 
United States. 
Unfortunately 
for the Amer- 
icans, however, 
the war had 
dragged . on so 
long that it was 
difficult to keep 
men in service. 
Moreover, Con- 
gress had no 
authority. Its 
most aggressive 
leaders had gone 
to the field of 
battle. Conti- 
nental money 
was worthless, and it was difficult to secure loans from 
individuals. A few small loans were secured in Holland 
and France. Had there been a well-organized govern- 
ment with good resources, the situation would not have 
been bad for the States. 



^^^^tS?^-' 



Paul Jones Directing the Fight with the 
" Serapis" 



EVENTS OF THE YEAR 1780 195 

CHAPTER XLVII 

EVENTS OF THE YEAR 1780 

British plans. — The British now planned an active 
campaign, by which they hoped that Sir Henry Chnton 
would conquer the rest of the Southern colonies. The 
plan was the same as that of 1779, but it was to be 
executed in a more vigorous way. 

Charleston captured. — With eight thousand men, Sir 
Henry Clinton sailed from New York. He laid siege 
to the city of Charleston, which was defended by General 
Lincoln. Lincoln had a very weak force, his army having 
gone to pieces in the winter. Although the five thousand 
men under his control bravely defended the town, he was 
forced to surrender (May, 1780) after the city had been 
almost destroyed by bombardment. 

War in many parts of South Carolina. — South Carolina was 
now practically in a hopeless condition. As Congress 
could give it no aid, nearly every part of the State was 
overrun and pillaged. But in the swampy country along 
the banks of rivers brave Patriots had assembled and 
were joined by others from North Carolina and Georgia. 
Marion, Sumter, and Pickens, with small bands of men, 
were constantly seizing British supplies and routing 
small forces of troops. ^ At last Congress made an effort 
to organize an army. Washington asked that General 
Greene be put in charge, but Congress ignored his request 

' McCreary says that of the one hundred and thirty-seven engagements 
in South CaroHna in this war, one hundred and three were fought by 
South Carolinians alone. Congress could give but little aid. 



196 



OUR REPUBLIC 



and sent General Gates. At Camden, South Carolina, 
Gates rushed headlong into battle (August 16th) before 
his army had been well organized. The struggle had 
hardly begun before his militia fled from the field. Gates 




The Battle of King's Mountain 



was completely routed ^ by Lord Cornwallis, who had 
been made commander of the British, and compelled to 
retire to Hillsboro, North Carolina. In this battle the 
Americans lost Baron de Kalb, who had rendered faith- 
ful service to their cause. 

' Many prisoners were taken by the English, among them Humphrey 
Hunter, a Charlotte (North Carolina) school boy. He was shut up in a 
prison pen in an old field. He had no hat or coat, these having been 
stolen from him. One day, as it was cold, he set out to get a coat from a 
near-by house; but he went beyond the bounds of his prison pen. Being 
arrested by a British soldier, who abused him, young Hunter determined 
to escape. Coming to a place where there were some lightwood knots, 



EVENTS OF THE YEAR 1780 197 

King's Mountain. — After the battle of Camden, Corn- 
wallis determined to conquer North Carohna and Vir- 
ginia. With this in view, he moved on Charlotte, North 
Carolina. Here he met with such sharp opposition that 
the British called that community (Mecklenburg Count}') 
" the hornet's nest." All, however, seemed lost to the 
Americans, when some Patriots from southwest Virginia 
and the Watauga settlements (page 187) got together 
under Colonel William Campbell and marched south- 
ward to aid their countrymen in South Carolina. They 
were joined on the way by many North Carolinians. At 
King's Mountain, on the border between North and 
South Carolina, they encountered Colonel Ferguson (Oc- 
tober 7th), who had been sent to recruit troops from the 
South Carolina Tories. Ferguson's force of eleven hun- 
dred men was completely defeated, and Ferguson was 
killed. This victory prevented the southern Tories from 
enlisting in the British army. Cornwalhs was left to 
fight out his campaigns with British troops only, and 
he retired to South Carolina. 

Arnold's treason. — While the war was going on in the 
South, Washington still watched the British in the North. 
The winter of 1779-80 had nearly destroyed his army. 
When spring opened, he had only four thousand men 
under his command, and these were almost ready to 
mutiny. Provisions were scarce, and the money paid 
the men was worthless. 

The British were planning to get control of the Hudson 

he suddenly seized them; and before the soldier could shoot him with a 
pistol, he threw a lightwood knot so well aimed that it landed on the 
temple of the soldier, who fell stunned to the ground. Young Hunter 
then forced the soldier to surrender to him. 



198 OUR REPUBLIC 

River. For this purpose they began secret negotiations 
with Benedict Arnold. He was a brave man in battle, 
but his heart was not in the American cause. He had 
been hostile to Washington, and for a number of indis- 
cretions had been court-martialed at Washington's sugges- 
tion. Though acquitted, he always felt aggrieved. He 
persuaded Washington to give him command of West 
Point (map page 180), the most important post on the 
Hudson, where the chief supplies of the American army had 
been gathered. Arnold secretly arranged with the British 
to surrender this post to them. Fortunately for the 
American cause, the go-between, Major Andre, was 
captured. Arnold made his escape to the British ships, 
but the Americans held West Point. The British refused 
to exchange Arnold for Andre, so the latter was tried as a 
spy and hanged. Arnold was made an officer in the Brit- 
ish army, though he was never respected by the English. 
The close of the year 1780. — The situation at the close 
of 1780 was not so hopeful as at the beginning; for Wash- 
ington's army had lost in numbers, supplies were more 
difficult to get, and there was less confidence than ever 
in Congress. The American army in the South under 
Gates had been annihilated. Georgia and South Caro- 
lina were in the hands of the British. 



CHAPTER XLVin 

THE WAR IN THE YEAR 17S1 

The situation in the spring of 1781. — The troops in 
Washington's army mutinied because they did not have 
sufficient clothing and food. This condition was some-- 



THE WAR IN THE YEAR 1781 



199 



what relieved by a loan which John Laurens of South 
Carolina, the American representative in France, was 
able to secure from the French. Congress then attempted 
to raise another army for the South. It removed Gates 
from command and followed Washington's advice in the 
appointment of Nathanael Greene. 

War in South Carolina. — Greene began at once a 
vigorous campaign. He sent Daniel Morgan into western 

South Carolina to secure forces 

and get supplies, wdth the idea 
of ridding the State of the Brit- 
ish. To prevent this, Cornwallis 
sent Colonel Tarleton. A terrible 
battle occurred between Tarleton 
and Morgan at the Cowpens in 
January, and the British were 
completely routed and many 
made prisoners. 

War in North Carolina. — Corn- 
wallis with a large army ad- 
vanced against Morgan, who 

quickly retreated into North Carolina. Greene hurried 
to Morgan's aid, and on account of the strength of 
Cornwallis retired into Virginia. The Americans had 
crossed the rivers of North Carolina none too soon. 
When Cornwallis came to them a few days later, he found 
them so swollen by rains that he was much delayed. Greene 
had time to collect his forces, and recruit and train them. 
Then he met Cornwallis at Guilford Courthouse near 
Greensboro (N. C). It was a bitter struggle. The Ameri- 
cans were defeated, but Cornwallis's army was so weak- 
ened that he was compelled to withdraw to Wilmington, 




General Nathanael Gkeene 



200 OUR REPUBLIC 

North Carolina. He now determined to hasten to Virginia 
in order to be nearer aid from New York. The battle of 
Guilford Courthouse, though a British victory, had served 
the purpose of driving the British out of North Carolina, 

South Carolina and Georgia freed of the British. — 
While Greene was fighting with Cornwallis in North 
Carolina, the Patriot leaders in South Carolina were 
driving the British troops out of the State and scattering 
the Tories. Soon General Greene himself started south- 
ward. He met the British under Colonel Rawdon at 
Hobkirk Hill and was defeated. But an attack in the 
rear by Sumter, Marion, and Light-Horse Harry Lee 
caused Rawdon to retire toward Charleston. After a 
campaign of six months, Greene met Rawdon in battle 
at Eutaw Springs. At first the Americans were success- 
ful; but the British rallied, and forced the Patriots from 
the field. Rawdon's forces were, however, compelled to 
retire to Charleston. By the last of September the 
British held only the two chief cities of the South, 
Charleston and Savannah. 

War in Virginia. — Clinton sent from New York a band 
of troops under Benedict Arnold to raid Virginia. That 
State was unprepared for a struggle, as most of its troops 
had been sent either north to Washington's army or 
south to aid Greene. Arnold had no difficulty, there- 
fore, in plundering the plantations along the James and 
in taking and burning Richmond. In the meantime 
Cornwallis moved from Wilmington, North Carolina, 
into Virginia. After taking Petersburg he began to 
pillage the country north of the James River; but he 
withdrew on the approach of Lafayette a^jdk Anthony 
Wayne, whom Washington had sent to checKnim. He 



THE WAR IN THE YEAR 1781 



201 




Marches and Countermarches of the Forces in the South, 1780-81 



202 



OUR REPUBLIC 



then marched to Yorktown, where he hoped to estabhsh 
connection with New York by sea. 

The surrender at Yorktown. — Washington saw that 
the time had come for prompt action. After con- 
sultation with the French commander, Rochambeau, 
it was decided to march rapidly to Yorktown. In the 
meantime the French fleet under Count de Grasse sailed 

into Chesapeake 

Bay and blocked 
the mouth of 
the York River. 
Washington 
came up and, 
joining forces 
with Lafayette 
and Count Ro- 
chambeau, be- 

The House at Yorktown Where the Terms of . ^ r^ 

CORNWALLIS'S SURRENDER WeRE AgREED UPON SiegBQ V^Om- 

wallis in York- 
town. A British fleet under Admiral Graves was de- 
feated in Chesapeake Bay, by Count de Grasse. After 
a stubborn resistance Cornwallis finally surrendered to 
Washington on the 19th of October, 1781. To receive 
the surrender of the British troops, Washington drew 
up his army in two divisions. On one side were the 
French, and on the other the Americans. • Between these 
two lines the British marched and threw down their arms, 
while the band played ''The World is Upside Down." 
Cornwallis did not come in person to deliver his sword, but 
sent it by General O'Hara. Washington required the Brit- 
ish officer to deliver the sword to General Lincoln, who, in 
May, 1780, had been forced to surrender CJbsfileston. 




PEACE WITH ENGLAND 203 

CHAPTER XLIX 

PEACE WITH ENGLAND 

Peace agreed upon. — Great was the joy of the country 
over the capture of Cornwallis at Yorktown! Every- 
where the Americans regarded the war as over,^ and at 
once commissioners were appointed to negotiate with 
England a treaty of peace. Finally, September 3, 1783, 
the English Government agreed to a treaty, which was 
duly signed and proclaimed. By the terms of this treaty 
the independence of each of the thirteen States was 
acknowledged. Florida was returned to Spain, but all 
the rest of the territory east of the Mississippi River and 
south of the Great Lakes and Canada was given to the 
thirteen States. The American States had been success- 
ful, but not entirely by the strength of their arms. They 
had been aided by England's enemies in Europe, against 
whom she had been obliged to use a large part of her re- 
sources. The hostility of the French, Dutch, and 
Spaniards toward England had been invaluable to the 
Americans. 

The army disbanded. — More than two months elapsed 
after the signing of the treaty of peace before the British 
evacuated New York. A month later, December 23d, 

^ After a short time the British evacuated Charleston and Savannah, 
but they held New York City until after the Treaty of Peace was agreed 
upon. All the States had contributed many soldiers to carry on the war 
against the mother country. The North sent to the army one hundred 
men of every two hundred and twenty-seven of military age and the South 
one hundred for every two hundred and nine. The reports give the best 
record to South Carolina — thirty-seven out of every forty-two citizens 
capable of bearing arms. See Curry's"The Southern States." 



204 



OUR REPUBLIC 



Washington formally disbanded his army. The army 
was greatly dissatisfied with Congress because supplies 

had been scanty and the 
troops had not received their 
pay. It is probable that the sol- 
diers would have rebelled and 
made Washington king, had 
he consented to such a move- 
ment. Instead, he discouraged 
every suggestion to overthrow 
the representative government 
that had been established. 

The money of Congress was 
worthless. Over $200,000,000 
in paper notes had been is- 
sued with no security what- 
ever. It took $40 in paper to 
equal $1 in gold or silver. A 
barrel of flour cost 1 1,000 in 
^^ ^^^_ Continental currency. The 

MHk ^^^^L. soldiers were unwilling to take 

Pr I ^ I """^''"""IIB^^^BMI this money as pay. Robert 

Morris again raised the money 
to pay the soldiers, borrowing 
on his own personal notes. 
After the army had been paid 
off and actually disbanded, 
Washington resigned his command to Congress and re- 
turned to his home at Mount Vernon in northern Virginia. 
Washington's services as commander. — It is not to 
be forgotten that the colonies could never have succeeded 
had there not been in the field an orgai-tized force to 




Monument at Yorktown, Com- 
memorating THE Surrender 



PEACE WITH ENGLAND 



205 



check the British. To the wisdom of Washington, there- 
fore, we owe more than perhaps we reahze. The fact 
that he did not risk the destruction of his army in battle 
was the salvation of the American cause. Washington 
never won any brilliant victories save that of Trenton, 
but the generalship that prevented his army from being 




Washington at Mount Vernon 
After a painting by Chappel. 

trapped or from suffering a disastrous defeat was the best 
evidence of his ability. His perseverance, his great faith 
in his cause, his unselfishness, his untiring personal effort 
— these were the qualities by which he held the army to- 
gether. To the Patriots who stood by Washington we 
owe much; for never did men remain in service with such 
poor support from the government as did the Continental 
troops. It was only their love of country that made 
them endure so many hardships. 



V. CRITICAL PERIOD 



CHAPTER L 

FIRST CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES 

Congressional government. — You will recall that the 
Congress of the United Colonies had been started in a 
peculiar way. In 1765 only nine colonies had sent 
delegates to a meeting to discuss the Stamp Act (page 
155). In 1774, after England had tried to enforce many 
oppressive measures (page 160), another Congress had 
been called, in which twelve colonies were represented. 
This was called the First Continental Congress. It 
adjourned to meet again in May, 
1775. Many of the members at 
this second session were the same 
who had sat in the Cotigress of 
1774. A number of vacancies had 
occurred, and had been filled by new 
members. 

The Second Continental Con- 
gress, as it was called, had no au- 
thority other than to discuss and ad- 
vise what was best to be done. With 
war at hand, it would have been im- 
possible to submit all the questions to the various colo- 
nies. The result was that Congress began to act as if it 
were a legislative body. The States passed no resolutions 

206 




The Flag of the 

United Colonies 

A variation of the British 

flag. 




90 Lungitu.ie 



The United States with Western Territory at the Close of the 
Revolutionary War 



FIRST CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES 207 

as to the powers of Congress, but simply accepted or 
rejected its acts at will. 

When Congress, on the advice of some of the States, in 
1776 declared the colonies free and independent (page 
174), it at once proposed that there should be a union 
of all the colonies and that a constitution should be 
adopted. A committee was immediately appointed to 
draw up a constitution; and in 1777 Congress adopted a 
constitution called the Articles of Confederation, which 
had to be submitted to each State for approval before it 
became operative. In the meantime war was in prog- 
ress, and the States were slow to approve the constitu- 
tion. 

Western land claims. — The reasons why the Articles 
of Confederation were not immediately approved by the 
States in 1777 were two: 

1. Many of the States were too much engrossed in 
war to act. 

2. Some of the smaller States were opposed to having 
large States, like Virginia, retain western lands. 

Finally the Articles of Confederation were ratified by 
all the States except Maryland, which refused, declaring 
that she would not ratify until the States claiming west- 
ern lands should surrender them to the general govern- 
ment for the common good. Connecticut and Massachu- 
setts claimed a part of the Northwest Territory, which 
George Rogers Clark had conquered; but the greater 
portion of that territory had already been organized as a 
Virginia county (page 190). New York claimed a small 
strip of land along the Great Lakes. Since the claims 
of New York, Massachusetts, and Connecticut were 
comparatively small and, to say the least, doubtful, the 



208 OUR REPUBLIC 

surrender of their claims was not a great sacrifice. 
But in order that the union might be made, Virginia 
gave up all her territory in the Northwest, thus making 
the greatest sacrifice recorded in our history. Then 
Maryland ratified the Articles of Confederation (1781), 
under which a new Congress was elected. You observe, 
however, that the war was for the most part carried on 
by the old Continental Congress. 

The Articles of Confederation. — The first constitution 
was not an instrument which bound together the States 
in a firm union. States' rights were fully recognized. 
It mattered not how many members any State might 
have in Congress; it was given only one vote. Thus 
the large States, such as Virginia and Massachusetts, 
counted for no more in the halls of Congress than small 
States like Delaware or Rhode Island. Moreover, there 
was in the new Government no real executive body. 
There was no president save the presiding officer of Con- 
gress, and no court like our modern Supreme Court of 
the United States to decide whether the action of a 
State was just or unjust. Therefore, Congress was, 
after all, only an advisory body. If troops were to be 
raised. Congress could ask the States to furnish them, 
but could not force the States to do so. If money 
was needed for the Government, the States could be 
called on to contribute according to their population; 
but there was no power to force them to comply with the 
request. Moreover, Congress could not make treaties 
of commerce with foreign countries and could not keep 
one State from levying a tax on importations from an- 
other. Though Congress issued a large amount of paper 
money, representing gold and silver, it had no power to 



ARTICLES OF CONFEDERATION 209 

guarantee that its face value would be paid ; consequently, 
its paper currency was worthless. On the other hand, 
every State had the right to coin money or to issue 
paper currency. 

No amendment could be made to the Articles of Con- 
federation except by vote of all the States. Congress 
being helpless, the States did not respect it ; and frequent- 
ly not a majority of the States would have representa- 
tives in the body. 

CHAPTER LI 

DISSATISFACTION WITH THE ARTICLES OF 
CONFEDERATION 

Efforts to revise the Articles of Confederation. — Before 
the actual disbanding of the army, Congress tried to 
get money to pay the soldiers. For this purpose it 
proposed an amendment to the Articles of Confederation, 
providing for a small import duty upon all goods brought 
to America. However, one State, Rhode Island, vetoed 
this, so that the measure was lost. A similar amendment 
to cover a period of twenty-five years was vetoed by 
New York. Another amendment offered by Congress 
regarding treaties of trade with other countries received 
even less consideration from the States than the other 
two. Thus every effort to amend the Articles of Con- 
federation failed. 

Internal disturbances. — In the meantime the State of New 
York was raising money by taxing the produce shipped 
into New York City by the farmers of Connecticut and 
New Jersey. The result was that the farmers refused to 
send their produce there, and trade was hampered. 



210 



OUR REPUBLIC 




The First Flag of the 
United States 



In Massachusetts, in 1786, one Daniel Shays led an 
insurrection of the people, who refused to pay the taxes. 
The State troops called out under General Lincoln were 
able, however, to stop the disturbance. A revolt occurred 
also in New Hampshire. Vermont, which had been gov- 
erned first by New Hampshire and then by New York, 
refused to live under the govern- 
ment of either. In 1782 the western 
counties of Virginia and Pennsyl- 
vania threatened to break away and 
organize a new State. What is now 
Tennessee, then a part of North 
Carolina, rebelled against the gov- 
ernment of North Carolina and 
drew up a constitution, electing a 
governor and a legislature for itself 
as a new State to be called ''Franklin," Kentucky 
talked of separation from Virginia; and Maine, from 
Massachusetts. Nowhere was there any confidence in 
the Government of the United States. Washington 
spoke of the Union as " the half-starved, limping govern- 
ment that appears always to be moving upon crutches 
and tottering at every step." 

Proposal of a new constitution. — At this critical period, 
men like Washington, Hamilton, and Madison began to 
propose that some change be made. When Washington 
retired to private life, he sent a letter to the governors of 
all the States urging that something should be done to 
give more power to the Congress. From 1783 to 1787 he 
wrote to many prominent citizens of the United States 
urging this change. Madison and Hamilton likewise were 
writing letters to the most influential men in all parts of 



MAKING A NEW FEDERAL GOVERNMENT 211 

the country, pointing out the necessity of standing by the 
Government and giving it more power. 

The proposal of a Constitutional Convention. — Mary- 
land and Virginia disputed the rights of each to navigate 
the Potomac River and Chesapeake Bay. A meeting 
was held at Alexandria to discuss the matter. As a result 
the legislature of Virginia called all the States to meet at 
Annapolis to consider what might be done to make better 
laws concerning commerce. Responding to this call, five 
States sent representatives to Annapolis in the fall of 
1786. This conference recommended that there should 
be called a general convention to amend the Articles of 
Confederation. The resolution of the Annapolis Conven- 
tion was presented to a meeting of Congress that did not 
fully represent the States. After some hesitation Con- 
gress passed a resolution approving of a general conven- 
tion to meet in Philadelphia in May, 1787, to amend the 
Articles of Confederation. 

CHAPTER LII 

MAKING A NEW FEDERAL GOVERNMENT 

The Convention of 1787. — Responding to the call of the 
Annapolis meeting and Congress, all the States except 
Rhode Island elected delegates to the Philadelphia Con- 
vention. There were some who declined places in the Con- 
vention because they felt sure that they could not approve 
a new constitution. Among these was Patrick Henry. 

In May, 1787, the Convention assembled in Independ- 
ence Hall, Philadelphia. Fifty-five members attended. 
Several of them had signed the Declaration of Independ- 
ence, and twenty-nine out of the fifty-five were college- 



212 



OUR REPUBLIC 



bred men. Among the representatives were George 
Washington and James Madison of Virginia; Alexander 
Hamilton of New York; Benjaixdn Franklin of Pennsyl- 
vania; Elbridge Gerry of Massachusetts; Roger Sherman 
of Connecticut; John Dickinson of Delaware; and the 
Pinckneys and John Rutledge of South Carolina. The 
Convention was organized by electing Washington presi- 
dent. It remained in session for two months, during 
which time the document known as the Constitution of 

the United States was framed. 
This Constitution was submitted 
to the States for their ratifica- 
tion. When nine States should 
have ratified it, the constitution 
was to go into effect. The docu- 
ment as adopted had been pre- 
pared chiefly by James Madison, 
who is therefore often spoken of 
as the " Father of the Constitu- 
tion." It also contains thirty or 
more features from a plan sub- 
mitted by Charles Pinckney of 
South Carolina, the youngest member of the Conven- 
tion. 

Provisions of the Constitution. — The Convention de- 
clared that the central government should consist of three 
departments : 

1. An Executive, the President. — There should be a Pres- 
ident elected for four years, not by direct vote, but by 
a number of electors selected by the people in the various 
States. 

2. A Congress. — There should be a Congress composed 




Charles Pinckney 



MAKING A NEW FEDERAL GOVERNMENT 213 

of two houses, a Senate and a House of Representatives. 
There was considerable trouble in reaching an agreement 
in the Convention as to how the members of Congress 
should be elected. The smaller States wanted all the 
States represented on an equal basis. The larger States 
wanted representation according to the population of 
each. After much debate, it was decided that the States 
should be represented in the Senate by two members from 
each, whether large or small, and that these members 
should be elected by the State legislatures. Members of 
the House of Representatives, however, were to be elected 
by vote of the people; and the number of representatives 
from each State was to be determined according to the 
population of the State, This brought on a discussion be- 
tween the free and slave States. The question long de- 
bated was whether slaves should be counted in the popu- 
lation. As a compromise it was finally decided that five 
negroes should be counted in the apportionment of rep- 
resentation as equal to three white persons. Out of this 
discussion grew another: whether slavery should be 
abolished. It was decided to put into the Constitution a 
provision by which the foreign slave trade might be abol- 
ished after twenty years; but no provision was made for 
the abolition of slaves within the States. 

3. A Supreme Court. — One of the weak points in the 
old Articles of Confederation — the lack of a court to 
decide important matters — was met by the establishment 
of a Supreme Court to judge of cases arising under the 
laws of Congress, or of matters touching the relation of one 
State to another and of the several States to the Federal 
Government. This court was the greatest invention of 
the new Constitution. 



214 OUR REPUBLIC 

The Constitution adopted. — As soon as the Constitu- 
tion had been submitted to the States for ratification, the 
State legislatures called special conventions to pass on the 
document. In all the States the question discussed was 
to what extent the powers of the States would be inter- 
fered with. Several States hesitated about ratification 
because there was a feeling that the power of the States 
would be greatly restricted by so strong a central govern- 
ment. Among the States that hesitated were Massachu- 
setts, Virginia, and New York. The general conclusion 
reached, however, was that States' rights would be 
Hmited, but not destroyed. By the end of July, 1788, the 
Constitution had been adopted by every State except 
R,hode Island and North Carolina. These two States did 
not ratify the Constitution until after the new Govern- 
ment had gone into effect, North Carolina coming in seven 
months after Washington had been inaugurated and 
Rhode Island six months later. 

By a vote of Congress it was decided that the new 
Government should go into effect on the first Wednesday 
in March, 1789. As this day in 1789 was the 4th of 
March, it is the date every four years for the inauguration 
of the President, and every two years for the change from 
the old to the new Congress. 

The Northwest Territory .^ — At the time that the people 
of the country were discussing a change in the Constitu- 
tion, the old Congress of the Confederation, though fre- 
quently idle and poorly attended, passed a number of 
measures of importance. Probably the most important 
question it settled was that of the government of the 
Northwest Territory. You remember that this land had 
been ceded to the United States by Virginia, Massachu- 



SOCIAL CONDITIONS IN 1789 215 

setts, and Connecticut (page 207). It was understood 
that the land should be sold for the common benefit of the 
States, Virginia included, and, according to Jefferson's 
plan proposed in 1784, the territory was to be divided into 
States as rapidly as the population would justify. Finally, 
in 1787, Congress passed the famous Ordinance for the 
Government of the Northwest Territory. This provided 
for a territorial government under the direction of Con- 
gress until the country should have sufficient popula- 
tion to warrant its division into States, and for the 
admission of these States into the Union on an equality 
with the original States. The form of government as 
outlined in this ordinance has been copied in the govern- 
ment of other territories which have been acquired by the 
United States since that time. One provision, which 
applied only to the Northwest Territory, forever excluded 
slavery from that region. 

CHAPTER LIU 

SOCIAL CONDITIONS IN 1789 

Communication. — Twenty-six years had passed since, 
as colonies, the several States had begun to realize that 
they had interests in common (page 149). During that 
time, however, there had been but few changes in the 
way of living. The most important change was the result 
of the Revolutionary War. The continuous marching 
of troops through the States and the need of a more 
direct and rapid post had resulted in more and better 
roads and better means of communication. More stage- 
coaches were in use, and the mails were carried more 
frequently. By these means and by association in the 



216 



OUR REPUBLIC 



arni}^, the men of the South had come to know the men of 
the North. 

Character of the people. — In spite of the fact, how- 
ever, that the colonists had been frequently brought in 
contact during the Revolutionary War and had learned 
more about one another, there was still a great difference 
in the character of the people in the different localities. 
The New England people were engaged in commerce 




High Street, Philauei.phia, at the ('lose of ihe Eighteenih 

Century 

An "American stage waggon " is collecting passengers for the trip to New York. 

From a contemporary print. 

and had begun to do some manufacturing. They lived 
in small towns and depended ch-efiy upon their home 
industries for their living. They still retained the 
Puritanical spirit of their ancestors, though somewhat 
less severe. On the other hand, the Southern people 
lived on large plantations, every planter being almost 
a ruler at home. He was not accustomed to interference 



SOCIAL CONDITIONS IN 1789 



217 



from any source. His views of life permitted of more 
amusement and pleasure than fell to the lot of a New 
Englander. There was a mixture of the two elements 
in the Middle States, where frequently one would find 
New England conditions side by side with conditions 
characteristic of the South, 

Commerce. — At the beginning of the Revolutionary 
War the colonies were in a position to produce every- 
thing that they needed, but not many of the luxuries of 
life. With war, the imports from England rapidly 
declined, and the exports also fell off to a great extent. 
For a time, too, many of the young industries of the 
country were stopped. In order to provide properly 
for these matters, the new Constitution gave Congress 
absolute power to regulate commerce. 

Development of the country. — At the close of the 
Revolutionary War the population was practically all 
east of the Alleghany Mountains, but the West was 
beginning to 
develop. By the 
time the new 
Government 
went into effect, 
many emigrant 
wagons might be 
seen going west 
through Pennsyl- 
vania to Pitts- 
burg. At Pittsburg the emigrants would transfer their 
possessions to flat-bottomed boats on the Ohio. They 
would pole their way down the river to make new settle- 
ments in the Northwest Country or Kentucky. In 1784, 




An Emigrant ^\ \gon on the ^^ eistw \rd Routs 
From an early print. 



218 



OUR REPUBLIC 



Kentucky, then a Virginia county, received twelve thou- 
sand new settlers. In 1786, a number of immigrants 
began to go north of the Ohio River. In Georgia the 
mountain regions and what is now northern Alabama 
were being explored and soon crude towns were being 
built in western Georgia. 

The largest city in the country was Philadelphia. 
It had about forty-two thousand inhabitants. 




The Beginnings of Columbus, Georgia 
A good illustration of a frontier village. After a sketch by Basil Hall. 

The labor question. — One of the greatest changes 
produced in the period from 1776 to 1789 was the atti- 
tude of the country toward labor. The indented white- 
servant system went out to a great extent, so that white 
people were no longer bound for any long term of service 
or sold from one owner to another. A change also 
took place with reference to slavery. Many of the 
leaders in both the North and the South thought slavery 
a bad system, and the Ordinance of 1787 for the Govern- 
ment of the Northwest Territory forbade the introduction 



SOCIAL CONDITIONS IN 1789 219 

of slavery into that region. All the northern States, 
except New York, New Jersey, and Delaware, during this 
period provided for the abolition of slavery. Thus before 
1789 slavery was excluded by law from practically half 
the area of the United States east of the Mississippi 
River. These changes were partly the results of the 
ideas of equality that grew with the Revolution, but 
chiefly due to economic conditions making slave labor 
unprofitable in the North. The country had set forth 
in the Declaration of Independence its belief that "all 
men are created equal." By the close of the century New 
York and New Jersey also had provided for the abolition 
of slavery; and the South would probably have done 
likewise but for the increase in the cultivation of cotton, 
which made slave labor very profitable. 

Educational development. — The Revolution did much 
to aid in the culture of the people. More newspapers 
were printed, pamphlets were published, and books were 
circulated. Education was greatly hampered as long 
as the war lasted; but as soon as it was over, schools began 
to open, and the young Americans flocked to college. 
In the Ordinance of 1787 there was a provision that 
education should forever be encouraged in the Northwest 
Territory. As a result, all the new States formed from 
this territory received a portion of land in each township 
to be set aside for school purposes. 

Dress, manners, customs, occupations. — The people still 
held to the dress, manners, and customs of 1763. 
The men who went West, it is true, gave up the more 
fashionable dress of the East — stopped powdering their 
hair and began to wear long trousers. It was not 
until about 1805 that men stopped wearing queues, 



220 OUR REPUBLIC 

and it was as late as 1830 before knee breeches were 
given up all over the country. 

Occupations remained the same as in 1763, except 
that New England was doing more manufacturing. 
The South was still engaged principally in agriculture, 
and cotton was being developed as a staple product. 
So by the time of Washington's inauguration we note 
a number of important industrial movements, such as 
the development of manufacturing in New England, the 
cultivation of cotton in the South, the abolition of slave 
labor in the North, and the increased demand for slave 
labor in the South. 

What the people did not have. — In 1789 the conven- 
iences of life were few. There were no railroads, steam- 
boats, telegraph or telephone lines. Communication 
was, therefore, very slow. The markets seldom showed 
bananas or oranges; for the slow sailboats could not bring 
these fruits any distance in good condition. 

There were no matches with which to make a fire. 
Flint and tinder box were used instead, and people 
tried to keep some live coals through the night as a basis 
for the next day's fire. There were no gas or electric 
lights, and no kerosene oil lamps. The fuel was chiefly 
wood — people were just learning about coal; and the 
lights were for the most part candles. A student had a 
hard time to read at night a century ago. 

There were few implements on the farm that were made 
of iron. Wheat had to be cut with a scythe. It was 
gathered with a wooden rake and, when dry, beaten out 
with sticks or trodden out by oxen. Most of the cloth 
was woven by hand, and all clothes were handmade. 
There were no patent looms or sewing machines. 



VI. MAKING OF THE REPUBLIC 



CHAPTER LIV 



ORGANIZATION OF THE NEW GOVERNMENT 



Washington's First Administration, 1789 — 93 



First steps toward organization. — The Constitution 
only outlined a general plan of government. The details 
had to be settled by Con- 
gress, which was called to 
meet on the 4th of March, 
1789. The members came 
in so slowly, however, be- 
cause of the difficulty of 
traveling, that Congress was 
not organized before April. 

In the meantime Wash- 
ington^ had been unani- 
mously elected President; and 
when Congress met, the result 
was formally announced. 
After a triumphal journey 
from his home at Mount 
Vernon, he reached New 




Georue Washington 
After a painting by Gilbert Stuart. 



'George Washington was born in Westmoreland County, Virginia, 
February 22, 1732. He became a surveyor, and while little more than a 
boy was sent on a mission to the French forces on the Ohio. He was an 
aide to Braddock and saved the remnant of his army from destruction. 

221 



222 



OUR REPUBLIC 



York, then the National Capital, and was inaugurated 
at Federal Hall, April 30th, 1789. i John Adams of 




Washington's Tiuumphal Entky into Xew' Yukk, on His Way to 
Inauguration 

Massachusetts, who was elected Vice President, had 
already taken the oath of office. 

In the French and Indian War he rose to the rank of colonel. He was 
frequently a member of the Virginia legislature and was a delegate to the 
Continental Congress in 1775. He was Commander-in-Chief of the Ameri- 
can forces during the Revolution, but retired to private life in 1783. In 
1787 he was President of the Constitutional Convention at Philadelphia. 
He was elected President of the United States and served two terms with 
distinction and ability. He died at Mount Vernon, December 14, 1799. 
He was a man of purest patriotism, of unusual ability and statesmanship, 
who well deserved the characterization, "First in war, first in peace, and 
first in the hearts of his countrymen." 

• We are told by an eye-witness of the inauguration that Washington 
"was dressed in deep brown, with metal buttons with an eagle on them, 
white stockings, a bag [for the hair behind], and sword." His tall, erect 



ORGANIZATION OF THE NEW GOVERNMENT 223 

Congress now turned its attention to the great work of 
setting the machinery of government in motion. Four 
executive departments were estabHshed: State, Treasury, 
War, and Justice. The judicial system of the country was 
completed by the establishment of courts below the Su- 
preme Court. Congress did its work well, and little of it 
has been undone since. 

The Cabinet. — Washington appointed Thomas Jeffer- 
son, Secretary of State; Alexander Hamilton,^ Secretary of 
the Treasury; Henry Knox, Secretary of W^ar; and Ed- 
mund Randolph, Attorney-General. He began at once to 
ask their advice about the affairs of government, and this 
was the beginning of the Cabinet. Washington did not 
believe in political parties; and by selecting two men as 

figure would attract attention in any gathering. He weighed about two 
hundred pounds and wore a number thirteen boot. He was strong and 
active — a skillful rider and an expert fencer. It is said that in a running 
jump he could cover a distance of twenty-two feet. He was one of the 
wealthiest Americans of his day, his estate being valued at as much as 
half a million dollars. Besides the family estate at Mount Vernon, which 
consisted of several thousand acres, he owned extensive tracts of fertile 
land near the Ohio River. 

1 Alexander Hamilton was born in St. Croix, an island of the West 
Indies, January 11, 1757. He was educated at King's College (now 
Columbia University), New York. He was in the army throughout the 
Revolution, rising to the rank of lieutenant colonel and serving on Wash- 
ington's staff. He was several times a member of the New York Legisla- 
ture and of the Continental Congress and was prominent in the movement 
which led to the meeting of the Federal Convention of 1787, which framed 
the Constitution. He was a prominent member of that body also. He 
was the first Secretary of the Treasury, and the credit of establishing our 
financial system belongs to him. He was a man of great personal charm 
and of unusual ability. He died from a wound received in a duel with 
Aaron Burr, July 12, 1804. He was the chief author of the scries of papers 
called The Federalist, which were written to secure the ratification of the 
Constitution. 



224 



OUR REPUBLIC 




widely separated in political opinions as Jefferson and 
Hamilton, he hoped to prevent party government. 

Rise of political parties. — Almost immediately, how- 
ever, parties began to appear in the country. Party 
division was shown even in the Cabinet, by the great dif- 
ference of opin- 
ion between 
Hamilton and 
Jefferson as to 
the nature 
of the new 
Government. 
Hamilton be- 
lieved that the 
general Gov- 
ernment should 
be given powers 
beyond those directly stated in the Constitution, 
while Jefferson held that the Constitution should be 
interpreted strictly. As those who agreed with Hamil- 
ton in a "loose" construction of the Constitution had 
favored the ratification of the Constitution, they took 
the name of ''Federalists." All those opposed to Hamil- 
ton's method of construing the Constitution, with Jef- 
ferson as their leader, formed the opposition party. They 
were at first called Anti-Federalists; later, Republicans, 
and finally. Democrats. 

Hamilton's financial policy. — As the first need of the 
country was an effective financial system, Hamilton made 
five suggestions, all of which were accepted by Congress. 
They were: 

1. A tax on goods brought in from foreign countries. 



Henry Knox, First 
Secretary of War 



Edmund Randolph 
First Attorney General 



ORGANIZATION OF THE NEW GOVERNMENT 225 



This was intended to raise money to pay the expenses of 
the Government and the interest on the National debt. 
This was the origin of our tariff system. 

2. A tax on distilled liquors. This was intended, not 
only to raise money, but to make the people respect the 
power and authority of the Federal Government. 

3. The funding, or renewing, of the National debt in new 
bonds. This debt amounted to about fifty-four millions 
of dollars. 

4. The assumption, or taking over, by the Federal 
Government of the debts of the States. This suggestion 
aroused so much opposition, especially from the Southern 
States, which had already paid part of their debts, that it 
was not accepted by Congress for some time. Finally 
a bargain was made by which 

the North agreed to locate the 
new Capital on the Potomac, and 
the South consented to the Fed- 
eral assumption of the State 
debts. The State debts thus 
taken over by the general Gov- 
ernment amounted to about 
twenty-one millions of dollars. 

5. The establishment of a Na- 
tional Bank, which would take 
care of the money of the Govern- 
ment and assist it in regulat- 
ing the currency. The United 
States was to own a part of the bank and thus benefit 
by its profits. 

New states and amendments to the Constitution. — 
North Carohna at length (1789) ratified the Constitution, 




Alexander Hamilton, First 
Secretary of the Treasury 



226 OUR REPUBLIC 

and Rhode Island entered the new Union the next year. In 

1791 Vermont was admitted without slavery; and the year 
following, Kentucky also became a State, but with slavery. 
Vermont was formed from territory claimed partly by 
New York and partly by New Hampshire. As early as 
1777 Vermont adopted a constitution. It contained a 
clause forbidding slavery — the first constitution in Amer- 
ica with such a provision. Kentucky had been a county 
in Virginia (page 189), but its population grew so rapidly, 
and it was so far removed from Virginia's seat of govern- 
ment (Richmond), that the State of Virginia gave per- 
mission for the creation of this new State. 

With a view to limiting the power of the Federal 
Government, the first ten amendments to the Constitu- 
tion were ratified in 1791. 

Indian troubles. — As the Indians in the Northwest 
Territory had given trouble for a number of years. 
General St. Clair was sent against them with a large 
force (1791). He was ambushed by Little Turtle at the 
head of two thousand Indians and was terribly defeated. 
Washington then sent "Mad Anthony" Wayne to com- 
mand an expedition against them. The Indians were 
defeated near Maumee River (1794) and forced to make 
a treaty, the United States paying them for their lands. 

Second Presidential election and inauguration. — In 

1792 Washington was unanimously reelected President, 
and John Adams again became Vice President of the 
United States. On March 4, 1793, Washington was 
inaugurated President for the second time. 



FOREIGN AND DOMESTIC RELATIONS 227 
CHAPTER LV 

FOREIGN AND DOMESTIC RELATIONS 

Washington's Second Administration, 1793-97 

Relations with France. - — The people of the United 
States were greatly interested in the establishment of 
the French Republic. After the execution of Louis XVI, 
France was at war with most of the European nations, 
including Great Britain. The Republicans in the United 
States wanted the Government to side with France, 
claiming that our country was still bound by the treaty 
made at the time of the American Revolution (page 184). 
But Washington, with the Federalists, held that the 
treaty had been made with Louis XVI and that it ceased 
to bind the United States when the French king w^as 
dethroned. A proclamation was accordingly issued, 
declaring that the United States would remain neutral; 
that is, that they would take no part on either side. 
This was a great disappointment to the people who 
sympathized with France. The French, too, were angry, 
because they claimed that the treaty was still binding. 

About this time ''Citizen" Genet came to America as 
minister from the French Republic and was at first 
received with great enthusiasm by the Republicans. 
But he attempted to rouse the people against the Presi- 
dent and in favor of the French Republic. In violation 
of the neutrality proclamation, he sent out privateers 
from the United States to attack British commerce. 
Then he made the mistake of abusing Washington and 
the Government, and this caused him to lose most of his 



228 



OUR REPUBLIC 



friends. Finally Washington demanded that he be 
recalled by the French Government. For a time it 
looked as if we should have war with France. 

Relations with England. — France was not the only 
country with which the United States had strained 
relations. Great Britain still held the forts in the western 
part of the country, on the ground that the debts that 
Americans owed to British merchants had not been paid. 
In addition to this she not only restricted trade with the 
West Indies, but, after she had declared war with France, 
seized a large number of American vessels that traded 
with the French. The Americans claimed that "free 
ships make free goods, " but England 
refused to acknowledge this. 

Nor were these the most serious 
grounds of complaint against Eng- 
land. The war with France caused 
need of more sailors in the English 
navy. As a consequence, American 
vessels were often searched by British 
officers, who seized and "impressed" 
into their service all sailors who 
appeared to be of English birth. 
They explained their action by say- 
ing that an Englishman could never 
become a citizen of another country. 
Many Americans were thus seized, 
taken from American ships, and forced to serve a foreign 
country. 

Jay's treaty. — Feeling against England was so intense 
that Washington, in the hope of avoiding war, sent 
John Jay, the Chief Justice of the Supreme Court, to 




John Jay 

FinsT Chief Justice of 

THE Supreme Court 



FOREIGN AND DOMESTIC RELATIONS 229 




Eli ^^■^ITNEY, Inventor 
OF THE Cotton Gin 



England in the effort to reach an agreement. A treaty- 
was signed (1794) by which England agreed to give up the 
forts in the West, and the United 
States agreed to secure the payment 
of the debts due British merchants. 
But England refused to pay for 
slaves that had been carried off by 
her troops. Neither would she agree 
to stop the impressment of seamen 
and the seizing of neutral ships. The 
treaty was a very poor one; and 
though it probably prevented war, it 
was deservedly unpopular in America, 
particularly with the Republicans. 
Jay was accused of being a traitor to his country. Ham- 
ilton was stoned in New 
York for speaking in fa- 
vor of the treaty, and ex- 
citement ran high. Wash- 
ington had to use all his 
influence to secure its rat- 
ification by the Senate. 

Invention of the cotton 
gin. — In 1793 the widow 
of General Nathanael 
Greene (page 199) was 
living in Georgia on a 
cotton plantation. She 
gave a home to Eli 
Whitney, of Massachu- 
setts, a young man who was then reading law. He was 
a graduate of Yale University. Noticing the slowness 




Whitney's Cotton Gin 
From a drawing after the original sketch 



230 OUR REPUBLIC 

with which the seeds were separated from the cotton 
fiber by hand, he invented a machine which would 
separate as many seeds in a day as one man could do in 
fifty days. This was the ''cotton gin." ^ Its invention 
was followed by a great increase in the production of 
cotton in the South. 

The Whisky Rebellion. — In the summer of 1794 the 
farmers in western Pennsylvania, who were in the habit 
of disposing of their surplus grain by using it in making 
whisky, refused to pay the tax on whisky and at last 
rose in revolt. Washington then called out fifteen thou- 
sand militia from Pennsylvania, Virginia, Maryland, 
and New Jersey, which under Governor Lee of Virginia 
marched against the "rebels." But the uprising was 
over by the time the army reached Pittsburg. Two of 
the rebels were tried for treason and sentenced to death, 
but Washington pardoned them. The new Government 
thus proved its ability to enforce its laws, and so in- 
creased the respect of its citizens. 

Admission of Tennessee. — In 1796 Tennessee, which 
had been ceded by North Carolina to the United States 
(1789), was admitted to the Union as a slave State. 

Retirement of Washington. — Washington was growing 
old and was becoming very weary of the cares of his of- 
fice and the abuse that was heaped upon him by the Re- 
publicans on account of his supposed sympathy with 
England. He therefore declined reelection in 1796 and 
retired to private life at the end of his second term as 
President. Before returning to Mount Vernon, he pub- 
lished in a Philadelphia newspaper a ''Farewell Address" 
to his beloved fellow countrymen. We still appreciate 

' " Gin " is a shortened form of " engine "; that is, machine. 



END OF FEDERALIST RULE 231 

this address because of its patriotic foresight and for the 
soundness of its pohtical advice. Washington spent his 
decUning days on his magnificent estate, Mount Vernon, 
busily engaged with his domestic affairs. He died in 
December, 1799, at the age of sixty-eight. 

Election of 1796. — The Federalists supported John 
Adams for President, in 1796; and the Repubhcans 
favored Thomas Jefferson. Jefferson had retired from the 
Cabinet in 1793, because he could not agree with Hamilton 
and objected to the policies of the administration. Wash- 
ington was above partisan politics, but he inclined very 
much to the Federalists. Adams received a majority of 
the electoral vote and became President, while Jefferson, 
his opponent, receiving the next highest number, became 
Vice President. 

CHAPTER LVI 

END OF FEDERALIST RULE 

John Adams's Administration, 1797-1801 

The X. Y. Z. affair. — Adams^ was inaugurated in 1797 
and retained Washington's Cabinet. He attempted to 
follow Washington's policy of neutrality, but the relations 

1 John Adams was born at Braintree, Massachusetts, October 19, 1735. 
He was graduated from Harvard College and became a lawyer. He served 
in the Continental Congress and was one of its ablest members. He 
signed the Declaration of Independence and the treaty of peace with 
Great Britain in 1783. He was twice Vice President and in 1797 became 
President. He was defeated in 1800 and retired to private life. He died 
July 4, 1826. He was a faithful and patriotic statesman, but lacked tact 
and the ability to make friends. It is said that his last words were, 
"Jefferson still lives." Jefferson by a strange coincidence died the same 
day. 



232 



OUR REPUBLIC 



with France were a source of great trouble to him. 
French vessels still plundered American traders. France 
was much angered by the adoption of Jay's treaty with 
England (page 229), as she regarded it as an unfriendly 
act. In 1796 she dismissed Pinckney, the American min- 
ister, because he was a Federalist. 

Later Pinckney and two other envoys were sent to 
France to make a treaty, but they were finally notified by 

three French agents known in 
history as "X. Y.Z." that a satis- 
factory treaty could be secured 
only by the payment of a large 
sum of money. Pinckney is 
said to have replied, ''Millions 
for defense, but not one cent for 
tribute!" The envoys notified 
President Adams of the insult to 
them as representatives of the 
nation, and he at once sent a re- 
port of the whole matter to Con- 
gress. A wave of indignation 
against France swept over the 
whole country when the news was made public. Prepa- 
rations for war were begun, and Washington was again 
asked to serve as Commander-in-Chief of the American 
army. A navy department was established, and American 
vessels were directed to attack French vessels. After 
several prizes had been taken by the Americans, France 
was glad to come to an understanding. The ITnited States 
sent over a new embassy, and a treat}^ was made (1800). 
The Alien and Sedition Laws. — Just at this time the 
Federalist party, which was now very popular with the 




JoHX Adams 



END OF FEDERALIST RULE 233 

people because it had always opposed the interference of 
the French, made a fatal mistake by passing the Ahen 
and Sedition Laws. A new naturalization law was 
passed which required a residence of fourteen years before 
a foreigner could become a citizen of the United States. 
Two Alien Laws gave the President power to send out of 
the country all foreigners whom he might consider danger- 
ous. The Sedition Law was intended to check the con- 
stant abuse of the Administration by Republican editors, 
many of whom were foreigners. It provided punishment 
for anyone who, by speaking or writing, tried to bring the 
Government, Congress, or the President into contempt. 
A Republican member of Congress, from Vermont was 
fined one thousand dollars and sent to jail for four months 
for accusing the Government of ''ridiculous pomp, fool- 
ish adulation, and selfish avarice." 

The Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions. — The Alien 
and Sedition Laws brought out much opposition from 
both Republicans and Federalists. Many people believed 
that these laws allowed the National Government a 
dangerous exercise of power, a fact that hastened the down- 
fall of the Federalists. Immediately two important state- 
ments of political doctrine were made. The legislatures of 
Virginia and Kentucky, at the suggestion of Madison and 
Jefferson respectively, passed resolutions which declared 
that these acts (by limiting free speech) were in violation 
of the Constitution; that the Constitution was a mere 
compact or agreement between sovereign States, and that 
the States therefore had the power to declare when a law 
violated the Constitution. The Virginia Resolutions 
called on the States to interfere; and the Kentucky legis- 
lature in 1799 passed a second series, which declared that 



234 OUR REPUBLIC 

a state could ''nullify" an unconstitutional law — that is, 
refuse to allow it to be enforced. 

Removal of the Capital. — In 1800 the Capital was 
moved to Washington, a new city whose site had been 
chosen by Washington. Although the city was then little 
more than a wilderness and grew very slowly for many 
years, it is to-day one of the most beautiful cities in the 
world. The District of Columbia, in which it is situated, 
was presented to the Federal Government by the State 
of Maryland. 

Election of 1800. — The Federalists again supported 
Adams for President and nominated Charles C. Pinckney 
of South Carolina for Vice President. The Republicans 
supported Jefferson for President and Aaron Burr of New 
York for Vice President. There was much bitterness be- 
tween the two parties, the Federalists claiming that 
Jefferson's election would result in anarchy, or the de- 
struction of all government, and the Republicans assert- 
ing that the success of the Federalists would mean the 
establishment of a monarchy and the destruction of all the 
rights of the people. The Republicans also, with more 
reason, accused the Federalists of extravagance in the 
conduct of the Government. 

The result was a Republican victory; but Jefferson and 
Burr received the same number of electoral votes, seventy- 
three each. No one had thought of Burr for President; 
but according to the Constitution, when there was a tie 
vote, the election went to the House of Representatives. 
After a long contest that body elected Jefferson, though 
the schemes of the Federalists to defeat him almost re- 
sulted in the choice of Burr. To avoid such a situation in 
the future, the Constitution was soon changed (1804) by 



END OF FEDERALIST RULE 



235 




The United States in 1800 
Showing: (1) The thirteen original States. 

(2) The States admitted since the Union, with dates of admission. 

(3) The Territories, with dates of organization. 



236 



OUR REPUBLIC 



an amendment providing that each elector should cast 
separate votes for the offices of President and Vice 
President (Constitution, Amendment XII). 

Services of the Federal Party. — The Federalists never 

came into power again; for this 
party had lost the confidence of 
the people. Through its lack of 
sympathy with them, it had 
ceased to be safe and progressive. 
But it had successfully organized 
the Government and deserves 
great credit for that important 
service. By the appointment of 
John MarshalP of Virginia to the 
place of Chief Justice of the 
Supreme Court, President Adams 
gave to the country its greatest 
judge. Chief Justice Marshall strengthened the National 
Government by his interpretation of the Constitution. 

> John Marshall was born in Fauquier County, Virginia, September 24, 
1755. For a time during the Revolution he served in the army, but 
resigned to practice law. He was a member of the Virginia Convention that 
met to ratify the Constitution of the United States, and he was several 
times elected to the Legislature. He was also a member of the Virginia 
Constitutional Convention of 1829. He was at different times special 
envoy to France, member of Congress, Secretary of State, and Chief 
Justice of the Supreme Court. He died July 6, 1835. He was the greatest 
judge in our history and through his decisions he has influenced greatly 
the development of the nation. 




John Marshall 



TRIUMPH OF REPUBLICAN PRINCIPLES 237 



CHAPTER LVn 

TRIUMPH OF REPUBLICAN PRINCIPLES 

Jefferson's First Administration, 1801 — 05 

Meaning of Jefferson's election. — It was with great joy 
that the Repubhcans saw the election of Jefferson ^ 
More than any other man in the country he represented 
the views of the mass of the 
people. This fact, coupled 
with his great ability, had 
made it possible for him to 
organize his followers into the 
compact Republican Party. 
He believed in the people 
and sought always to secure 
their rights. He joined with 
them in opposing every tend- 
ency toward a strong central 
government and in doing 
away with all ceremony and 
show. His election, there- 
fore, meant that the rights 

of the people would be considered more by the Govern- 
ment than formerly. To the theory of a government for 

1 Thomas Jefferson was born in Albemarle County, Virginia, April 13, 
1743. He was educated at William and Mary College and began the practice 
of law. He was often a member of the Virginia Legislature and was a 
member of the Continental Congress. He wrote the Declaration of In- 
dependence and signed it. He was later governor of Virginia, minister 
to France, Secretary of State, Vice President, and President for two 
terms. He was the greatest political writer and thinker in America and 
was the founder of the Democratic-Republican Party. 




Thomas Jeffersox 



238 OUR REPUBLIC 

the people had now been added that of a government by 
the people. 

Jefferson's policy. — Jefferson came into office with a 
definite policy. He urged economy in the administration 
of government, the lowering of taxes, the payment of the 
National debt, and the reduction of the size of both army 
and navy. He refrained from partisanship. ''We are all 
Federalists, we are all Republicans," he said when he was 
inaugurated, and it was not long before he had won over 
many moderate Federalists to his party. His Cabinet 
was a very strong one, and it was in perfect accord with 
him. In Madison, the Secretary of State, and Gallatin, 
the Secretary of the Treasury, he had two advisers that 
were almost unequaled. 

War with the Barbary States. — ^The piratical Barbary 
States of northern Africa had been preying upon Amer- 
ican commerce for some years. This brought on a w^ar 
in 1801. Tripoli was bombarded, and all the Barbary 
States were brought to terms. Fortunately for the United 
States, this war gave our sailors valuable training, which 
was useful a few years later. 

Purchase of Louisiana. — The most important act of 
Jefferson's administration was the purchase of Louisiana. 
This vast territory, extending from the Mississippi 
River to the Rocky Mountains, was then but little 
known to the world. France had ceded it to Spain in 
1763, but had regained it in 1800. Napoleon, who was 
then the ruler of France, planned to send over an army 
of occupation and to build up a strong rival of the United 
States. The port of New Orleans was closed to American 
commerce, so that the Western States were practically 
cut off from all trade with the rest of the world. 



TRIUMPH OF REPUBLICAN PRINCIPLES 239 

Napoleon's plans caused great uneasiness in the United 
States; and even Jefferson, friendly to France as he was, 
became alarmed and made up his mind to obtain an out- 
let into the Gulf of Mexico for the commerce of the great 
Mississippi valley. Napoleon was soon again at war 
with England and greatly needed money. As he was 
unable to defend Louisiana, he agreed to sell it for 
$15,000,000. By this purchase about one million square 
miles of territory were added to the United States (see map 
on page 240). In this purchase of territory, Jeffer- 
son overstepped his authority, as defined by the Con- 
stitution, and thereby violated his doctrine of strict con- 
struction. He knew, however, that he was doing so, and 
asked that an amendment to the Constitution be passed 
to give the Administration the right to enter into such 
a contract in case of urgent need. 

The country as a whole approved the action of the Presi- 
dent in making the purchase ; but very violent opposition 
to it developed in New England, where there were threats 
of secession from the Union. This was, however, con- 
fined to one section and to one party. The people 
generally realized how valuable the new possession was. 

Admission of Ohio. — In 1803 Ohio was admitted to 
the Union as a free State. This was the first State to 
be formed out of the Northwest Territory and the seven- 
teenth to enter the Union. Migration westward was 
increasing every year. Already there was a growing 
population in what is now Illinois and Indiana. With 
the purchase of Louisiana Territory, migration to the 
Mississippi Territory, now Alabama and Mississippi, 
increased ; and many settlers pushed across the Mississippi 
River to the new West. 



240 



OUR REPUBLIC 



Western explorations. — In Jefferson's administration 
important progress was made in the exploration of the 
West. In 1804 an expedition under Lewis and Clark, 
after ascending the Missouri River, crossed the Rocky 




The Routes of Lewis and Clark, and Pike 

Mountains, descended the Columbia River, and reached 
the Pacific Ocean. This expedition gave the United , 
States a strong claim upon the Oregon country. 

In the same period Lieutenant Zebulon M. Pike, in 
attempting to discover the source of the Missouri River, 
reached the northern limit of the Louisiana Territory, 




STRUGGLE FOR COMMERCIAL RIGHTS 241 

and a year later, after discovering and measuring the 
peak that bears his name, reached the Rio Grande. 

Election of 1804. — ■ In 1804 JefTerson was elected 
President for a second term, and George Clinton of New 
York Vice President, by a very large majority over 
C. C. Pinckney of South Carolina 
and Rufus King of New York. 

Burr's conspiracy. — In 1804 Aaron 
Burr, who had been defeated for gov- 
ernor of New York through the influ- 
ence of Alexander Hamilton, chal- 
lenged Hamilton to a duel and killed 
him. Burr's term as Vice President 
expired in 1805, and he went west 
to escape punishment. There he 

, , i r • • • L Aaron Burr 

planned some sort 01 uprismg agamst 
the United States, the object of which has never been 
clearly revealed. The plan fell through, and Burr was 
arrested by the authorities of Mississippi Territory, but 
was finally acquitted by the Federal Court at Richmond, 
Virginia (1807). 

CHAPTER LVIII 

STRUGGLE FOR COMMERCIAL RIGHTS 

Jefferson s Second Administration, 1985-09 

Trouble with England and France. — During the long 
struggle between England and France, known as the 
''Napoleonic Wars," American vessels increased in num- 
ber and obtained more and more of the carrying trade 
of the world. At that time the British Government, in 



242 OUR REPUBLIC 

order to strike a blow at France, ordered the seizure of all 
vessels carrying goods to France from the French West 
Indies. This affected American merchantmen. Further- 
more, England began again the searching of American 
ships and the impressment of seamen. In less than a 
year one hundred American vessels were captured, and 
nearly a thousand seamen impressed. Jefferson was op- 
posed to war, as he realized the injury it would work to 
the United States. Consequently, though he protested to 
England against the outrages on American commerce, he 
made no preparations to force her to respect our rights on 
the high seas. 

In 1806 Napoleon issued a series of decrees that were 
intended to cut off Great Britain from all trade with the 
rest of the world. Great Britain replied by a series of 
Orders in Council which declared France in a state of 
blockade and forbade any nation to trade with her. Both 
sides began to capture all vessels that failed to obey these 
decrees and orders, and in consequence the business of the 
United States suffered terribly. Neither France nor 
England would listen to our protests. 

In 1806 a Non-Intercourse Act was passed by Congress; 
but it was not put into effect for some time, and conditions 
in the meanwhile steadily grew worse. 

The " Chesapeake " and the " Leopard." — The anger 
of the people of the United States was increased greatly 
by a British outrage that occurred in June, 1807. The 
British ship. Leopard, acting under orders, held up near the 
Virginia Capes the American frigate Chesapeake and, 
after firing on her and killing three and wounding eighteen 
men, searched her and impressed four of her crew. The 
whole country was indignant, and there was a general 



STRUGGLE FOR COMMERCIAL RIGHTS 243 

demand for war. But Jefferson still clung to his policy 
of peace, and the only action immediately taken was an 
order to English ships to leave the United States. 

Efforts to avoid war. — Jefferson tried to prevent fur- 
ther trouble with England by a treaty. But the treaty 
that Pinckney and Monroe made (1806) contained no as- 
surance that England would stop either impressment or 
the seizure of American commerce bound for France. It 
was so unsatisfactory to the President that he refused to 
send it to the Senate for ratification. 

Acting on Jefferson's advice, Congress then passed an 
Embargo Act (1807), which prohibited all American 
vessels from sailing for foreign ports. It was hoped that 
England and France would be so much hurt by loss of 
trade that they would yield. But the United States was 
more injured than either France or England; for not only 
were the shipowners deprived of business, but sailors, 
farmers, merchants, manufacturers, and laborers, all suf- 
fered. In some sections of the country business prac- 
tically stopped. 

The embargo proved to be very difficult to enforce. 
Many vessels slipped away from the home ports despite 
the law. The Legislature of Massachusetts declared the 
Act unconstitutional, and in some parts of New England 
there were discussions urging secession. Public opinion 
against the embargo was so strong that finally the Act 
was repealed (1809); and the Non-Intercourse Act, that 
had been awaiting the President's approval, was signed by 
Jefferson just three days before the expiration of his term 
of office. 

Jefferson's place in history. — Thomas Jefferson prob- 
ably had a greater influence on our political life than any 



244 



OUR REPUBLIC 



other American. He directed the acts of Congress during 
his Presidency; and after his retirement until his death, his 
advice was constantly sought by political leaders. His 
far-seeing statesmanship in the conduct of government 
— shown, for instance, in the purchase of Louisiana — 
entitles him to the gratitude and veneration of all his 

countrymen. He made 
mistakes, particularly in 
his foreign policy, but 
they were far overbal- 
anced by the good he 
accomplished. One of 
the greatest acts of his 
career was performed af- 
ter his retirement to pri- 
vate life; namely, the founding of the University of 
Virginia. ^ 




Jefferson's Home, " RIonticello ' 



1 He spent his last days at his beautiful home, "Monticello, " near 
Charlottesville, Virginia. Here he entertained his numerous friends, 
supervised the building of the University of Virginia, and read the many 
valuable books in his great library. On his tomb appears the following 
epitaph, which Jefferson himself wrote: "Author of the Declaration 
of Independence; of the Statute of Virginia for Religious Freedom, and 
the Father of the University of Virginia." Jefferson was undoubtedly 
one of the most learned men of his day. One of his acquaintances said: 
"When he spoke of law, I thought he was a lawyer; when he talked about 
mechanics, I was sure he was an engineer; when he got into medicine, 
it was evident that he was a physician; when "he discussed theology, I 
was convinced that he must be a clergyman; when he talked literature, 
I made up my mind that I had run against a college professor." 

After he retired to private life, Jefferson became reconciled to his old 
friend and pohtical rival, John Adams; and they carried on a correspond- 
ence during the remainder of their lives. Both died on the fiftieth anniver- 
sary of the signing of the Declaration of Independence, July 4, 1826. 




ENGLAND FORCES WAR 245 

Invention of the steamboat. — In 1786 James Rumsey 
of Virginia displayed the model of a steamboat which he 
had invented. As early as 1788 John Fitch of Connecticut 
put a steamboat on the Delaware, and in 1790 a steamboat 
that he invented made regular 
trips between Philadelphia and 
Trenton. Seventeen years later 
(1807) the most notable effort 
at steam navigation was made 
by Robert Fulton. His vessel, 
the Clermont, steamed from New 
York to A'.bany in a day and a 

iir ij.1- j-Ci-iiJ The "Clermont" 

half, and th s was at first looked 

upon as little short of a miracle. Within a few years 
steam was used generally in propelling rivercraft and 
even in ocean navigation. 

Election of i8o8. — Jefferson refused a third term, as 
Washington had done, and retired to Monticello, his 
home in Virginia. Largely through his influence, James 
Madison, his Secretary of State, was chosen to succeed 
him. 

CHAPTER LIX 

ENGLAND FORCES WAR 

Madison's Administration, 1809-12 

Madison's efforts at peace. — After Madison^ was 
inaugurated (March 4, 1809), he made further efforts to 

' James Madison was born in King George County, Virginia, March 
16, 1751. He was graduated at Princeton and did post-graduate work 
there. He was a member of the Virginia Legislature, the Continental 
Congress, and the Federal Convention of 1787. In the latter body he 



246 



OUR REPUBLIC 



avoid trouble with England and France. Like Jefferson, 
he was a man of peaceful disposition, but all his efforts 
to induce England to withdraw the Orders in Council 
(page 242) failed. He then made an attempt, through 
an act of Congress, to persuade France or England to 
make favorable terms by offering, if one of them would 

withdraw its restrictions on 
American commerce, to forbid 
the United States to trade with 
the other. ' 

Napoleon, in the meantime, 
had ordered the seizure of Amer- 
ican ships under pretext that 
they had violated the Embargo 
Act by leaving American ports. 
Now, however, he answered 
Madison that all the offensive 
decrees had been withdrawn ; but 
when trade began again with a 
rush, he ordered that American merchantmen be seized 
and confiscated. Thus fresh injuries were inflicted upon 
the United States. 

The " President " and the " Little Belt."— So great had 
been England's outrages against the United States 
that the people became impatient and demanded war. 
France had been as hostile as England, and there was 
equal cause for war with her. But England was par- 
ticularly hated by many of the people. Added to their 

did the greater part of the framing of the Constitution and exerted more 
influence than any other member. He also preserved the outhnes of the 
debates in the Convention. He was later a member of Congress, Secretary 
of State, and President for two terms. He was a writer of ability and 
was one of the authors of The Federalist. He died June 28, 1836. 




James Madison 



ENGLAND FORCES WAR 247 

bitter resentment of recent outrages were their old mem- 
ories of the Revolution. 

About this time the frigate President was sent out to 
protect American vessels. On her way to New York City, 
she met the British war vessel, Little Belt; and a battle 
followed, in which the Little Belt was defeated and badly 
injured (1811). 

Declaration of war. — When Congress met in 1811, it 
was controlled by a new set of leaders. They were young 
and enthusiastic and came mostly from the South and 
the West, where the feeling against England was most 
intense and where there was a strong desire for war. 
Prominent among them were Henry Clay of Kentucky 
and John C. Calhoun of South Carolina. These young 
men, with their ''warhawks" from the South and the 
West, were tired of submitting to insult and injury; so 
they forced Congress td a declaration of war. President 
Madison was still opposed to it; but finally his consent 
was won, and war was declared, June 18, 1812. 

England forced this war by: (1) the sending of 
British war vessels to the coast of the United States; 
(2) the capture of hundreds of American vessels; (3) 
the Orders in Council; (4) the inciting of the Indians to 
hostility; (5) the impressment of seamen. 

Indian troubles. — In 1810 Tecumseh, a remarkably 
able Indian chief, and his twin brother, ''The Prophet," 
united the Indians of the Northwest into a hostile league. 
It was thought that the chiefs were under the influence 
of the English in Canada, and the league threatened the 
whole western frontier of the United States. In 1811 
General William Henry Harrison, taking advantage of 
the absence of Tecumseh, attacked the Indians near 



248 OUR REPUBLIC 

their town, Tippecanoe, on the Wabash River, and 
defeated them. This feat made Harrison the hero of the 
West. 

End of the Bank. — The RepubUcans had always 
opposed the National Bank; and when its charter expired 
in 1811, they refused to recharter it, on the ground that 
it was not needed and that it had too much power. 

Madison reelected. — In 1812 Madison and Elbridge 
Gerry of Massachusetts were elected President and 
Vice President. The Federalists supported DeWitt Clin- 
ton of New York and Jared Ingersoll of Pennsylvania. 

Admission of Louisiana as a State. — By 1812 the popu- 
lation of the southern portion of the Louisiana Purchase 
(the Territory of Orleans) had grown largely. The section 
had been chiefly French; but many Americans had 
gone into it, and New Orleans had become an important 
shipping point for all the West. The Territory was 
therefore admitted as a State, with a constitution pro- 
viding for slavery. 

CHAPTER LX 

FIRST AND SECOND YEARS OF THE WAR OF 1812 

Madison's Administration, 1812-13 

Situation in the United States. — The United States 
was not at all prepared for war. The army was small 
and weak, and the navy had but few vessels, while Eng- 
land had powerful armies and nearly a thousand ships of 
war. The country was poor, and the revenues were 
steadily growing smaller. Worst of all, the country 



FIRST TWO YEARS OF THE WAR OF 1812 249 

was far from being united. The New England States 
had just been offended by the admission of Louisiana 
as a slave State (1812). The Northern and Middle 
States as a whole felt that it would be their interests, 
rather than those of the South, that would suffer by war, 
since a great part of their property was invested in ship- 
ping or commerce. So strong was the feeling against 
the war, that Massachusetts, Connecticut, and Rhode 
Island refused to obey the President's call for the militia. 
Many men in New England, however, volunteered in 
spite of the action of their States. 

Campaign of 1812, — The first plan of the war was to 
invade and capture Canada. Three armies were ordered 
to advance into that country: one under General Hull by 
way of Detroit, another under General Van Rensselaer 
by way of Niagara, and a third under General Dearborn 
by way of Lake Champlain. The armies were to unite and 
then to seize Montreal and Quebec. Hull, fearing a gen- 
eral Indian massacre, surrendered Detroit and the whole of 
Michigan without a blow. He was afterward tried for 
cowardice and sentenced to death, but was pardoned 
because of his military record in the Revolution. Van 
Rensselaer was defeated at Queenstown Heights because 
his militia refused to go into Canada, and Dearborn 
never reached Canadian soil. This year the efforts of the 
Americans on land were unsuccessful, with one exception. 
At Ogdensburg, New York, the British were repulsed by a 
force of militia under Jacob Brown, a Quaker farmer. 

War on the sea. — ^The discouragements on land in 1812, 
however, were fully offset by victories on the sea. Great 
Britain was acknowledged the undisputed mistress of the 
sea, and no one thought that the vessels of the United 



250 



OUR REPUBLIC 



States would have any chance against her power. But in 
August the Constitution, Captain Hull commanding, de- 
feated and destroyed the Guerriere. The ships met in the 
Gulf of St. Lawrence, and the battle was over within half 
an hour. Two months later, the Wasp captured the Frolic, 
and the United States, under Captain Stephen Decatur, 
captured the Macedonian. In December the Constitution, 
then under Captain William Bainbridge, destroyed the 
Java and won the name ''Old Ironsides. " Other victories 
of less importance were added to these, gladdening the 




The Northern Frontier during the War of 1812 



hearts of all Americans and amazing the world. Through 
her navy the United States won the respect of the 
nations. 

After this year the tide turned, and the American vessels 
were either captured or forced to take refuge in the har- 
bors of their own country. The most famous of the 



FIRST TWO YEARS OF THE WAR OF 1812 251 

American defeats was the capture of the Chesapeake by 
the Shannon. Captain Lawrence of the Chesapeake was 
killed; and his last words, ''Don't give up the ship," be- 
came the watchword of the navy. In this war two hun- 
dred and fifty American privateers, vessels owned by 




" Don't Give Up the Ship " 
After the painting by Chappel. 



private persons and authorized by Congress to enter the 
war, scoured the seas, capturing many hundred English 
merchantmen and inflicting terrible injury upon British 
commerce. 

War in the Northwest. — In 1813 General Harrison, the 
hero of Tippecanoe, was placed in command in the North- 
west and ordered to regain Michigan. Part of his force 
under General Winchester was captured at Frenchtown, 



252 OUR REPUBLIC 

on Raisin River. The British force, under General Proc- 
tor, was assisted by a body of Indians under Tecumseh. 
Proctor promised protection, but his Indian alHes fell 
upon the prisoners and massacred most of them. This 
''Raisin River Massacre," as it was called, aroused the 
Northwest as nothing else had done; and Harrison soon 
had a large force at his command. 

Proctor and Tecumseh at once retreated, and Harrison 
followed them into Canada and attacked them on the 
Thames River. The battle resulted in an American vic- 
tory. Tecumseh was killed, but Proctor escaped. By 
these victories the Northwest was permanently recovered. 

Perry's victory on Lake Erie. — In the meantime, Cap- 
tain Oliver H. Perry, a young naval officer, was busily 
engaged in building a fleet on the shores of Lake Erie. 
The British already had a number of vessels on that lake ; 
and on the 10th of September, 1813, the two fleets engaged 
in battle. Perry had nine vessels, and the British six ; but 
the British vessels were larger and had more and heavier 
guns. The battle lasted for three hours, and Perry finally 
lost his flagship, the Lawrence, named for the gallant com- 
mander of the Chesapeake, whose last words were the battle 
cry of the day. ^ But despite the flying shell, Perry went in 
a rowboat to the Niagara, and in a few minutes the fight 
was over and won. Perry's message to General Harrison 
has become famous : ''We have met the enemy and they are 
ours; two ships, two brigs, one schooner, and one sloop." 

' When Perry was ready for the battle, he unfurled a flag, saying: "My 
brave lads, this flag contains the last words of Captain Lawrence. Shall 
I hoist it?" His men repHed with one voice, "Ay! Ay! Ay!" When 
the rest of the fleet saw the words, " Don't give up the ship! " they showed 
their approval of the sentiment by their hearty cheers. 



FIRST TWO YEARS OF THE WAR OF 1812 253 



Operations around Lake Ontario. — In April General Dear- 
born's army captured York (now Toronto) and, to the dis- 
grace of the nation, burned its public buildings. An Amer- 
ican attempt to capture Montreal failed. The British then 
invaded New York. Although 
they were repulsed at Sackett's 
Harbor, they did much damage 
elsewhere. Unfortunately the 
Americans about this time burned 
a Canadian village (Newark) . 

Jackson and the Indians. — In 
the Southwest, both the British 
and the Spanish had been stirring 
up the Indians against the United 
States. In August, 1813, the 
Creeks rose and, falling upon the 
settlers at Fort Mims in Ala- 
bama, killed four hundred of 
them with horrible cruelty. Gen- 
eral Andrew Jackson was sent to 
subdue them. With a force of 
Tennessee riflemen and militia- 
men from the Southwest, he inflicted a crushing defeat 
upon the Indians at Horseshoe Bend. Jackson's men 
affectionately gave him the title "Old Hickory," in rec- 
ognition of his endurance. ^ 

' On one of his prolonged marches, Jackson had three good horses at 
his disposal, but gave them over to sick soldiers while he walked with his 
men. One of the soldiers, observing this, remarked, "The General is 
tough"; and a second one added, "As tough as hickory." He was ever 
afterward known as "Old Hickory." 




Andrew Jackson in the 
Uniform of 1812 



254 



OUR REPUBLIC 



CHAPTER LXI 



THIRD YEAR OF THE WAR OF 1812 



Madisori's Administration, 1814 

The third invasion of Canada. — In July, 1814, an 
American army under General Jacob Brown crossed the 
Niagara River and invaded Canada. Two American vic- 
tories followed, one at Chippewa and the other at Lundy's 
Lane (map on page 250), but no important advantage was 
gained. In these battles General Winfield Scott won 

distinction. 

The English had fixed 
their attention on the 
Hudson valley route into 
the heart of the Republic. 
Now they took advantage 
of the fact that a large force 
of Americans was absent 
in Canada with General 
Brown. General Prevost, 
the English commander in 
Canada, marched with an 
army against Plattsburg on 
Lake Champlain. A British 
fleet on the lake supported 
him, but it was defeated 
rr ^ ^j and captured by a small 

IHE Campaign around Washington ^ ^ 

American squadron under 
Commodore Macdonough. Prevost was so alarmed by 
this that he retreated at once without striking a blow. 




DISTRICT OF AnhapoHsVg; k ^- 
•/Bladensbuif^ (iW\p^ 

fWashing'tonfi ""P^^ 
Ale^nchia " 




THIRD YEAR OF THE WAR OF 1812 255 

The capture of Washington. — During 1814 the English 
succeeded in blockading the Atlantic coast quite effective- 
ly. A number of towns were captured; and finally a fleet 
under Admiral Cockburn sailed into Chesapeake Bay, and 
an army under General Ross marched upon Washington. 
The British army defeated the weak force under General 
Winder which opposed them at Bladensburg, and oc- 
cupied Washington. There they brought disgrace to their 
country by burning the Capitol and all the other public 
buildings. 

A British fleet, in the meantime, threatened Balti- 
more, but was unable to pass Fort McHenry, which was 
bombarded for a long time.^ The British army from 
Washington advanced upon Baltimore, but was likewise 
repulsed near the city and retreated to the fleet. 

Battle of New Orleans. — Soon after these events a veteran 
English army was sent under General Pakenham against 
New Orleans. To defend the city the President chose 
General Jackson, who was placed in command of a force 
of volunteer riflemen, chiefly from Tennessee and Ken- 
tucky. Jackson fortified his position on the field of Chal- 
mette below the city, and inflicted a terrible defeat upon 
the British (January 8, 1815). General Pakenham was 
killed, and the British loss was over two thousand killed 
and wounded. The American loss was seven killed and 
six wounded. 

The treaty of peace. — If news could have been carried 
in those days as rapidly as it is to-day, the battle of New 
Orleans would never have been fought; for the treaty of 

' While the bombardment of the fort was in progress, Francis Scott 
Key, who was on a boat detained in the midst of the British fleet, com- 
posed the National air, "The Star Spangled Banner." 



256 OUR REPUBLIC 

peace had already been signed at Ghent, December 24, 
1814. 

This treaty did not mention the questions over which 
the war had been fought ; but since the war between Eng- 
land and France had come to an end, most of the questions 
had ceased to be of importance. Each side gave up what 
territory it had occupied, and both were glad to see the 
end of the war. 



CHAPTER LXII 

THE AMERICAN REPUBLIC RESPECTED ABROAD 

End of Madison's Administration, 1814-17 

Political results of the war. — Despite the fact that the 
war had not been a great military success and that the 
treaty failed to settle the matters in dispute, its results 
were on the whole very advantageous to the United 
States. It brought out clearly a national spirit, which was 
beginning to develop; and it greatly strengthened the 
general Government. It drew into close relation the dif- 
ferent sections of the country, with the one exception of 
New England, which remained aloof and disapproved. 

Fortunately the successful termination of the war put a 
stop to the efforts of certain New England leaders to in- 
duce their States to withdraw from the Union. In 1814, 
before the close of the war, delegates from these States had 
met at Hartford, Connecticut, and adopted resolutions 
condemning the war, asserting the right of nullification, 
and threatening to secede from the Union if certain de- 
mands which they made on Congress were not granted. 



AMERICAN REPUBLIC RESPECTED ABROAD 257 

But the end of the war came almost at once, and the only 
effect of the Convention was to kill what remained of the 
Federalist party. The war caused the American Repubhc 
to be greatly respected by European countries; for they 
saw, to their astonishment, how well the new Republic 
could resist a great power like England. 

Financial results of the war. — The financial condition 
of the country grew steadily worse during the war, and the 
Government found it very hard to raise money to carry 
on the struggle. In 1816 a new National Bank was char- 
tered for twenty years. It was like the old one, except 
that it was much larger (pages 225 and 248). 

Although trade with foreign countries was cut off during 
the war, manufacturing in the United States proved very 
profitable, and there was a great increase in the number of 
factories and their output. But when peace came, the 
country was flooded with goods from England, where 
they were manufactured much more cheaply; and the 
American industries were threatened with destruction. 
To help the manufacturers. Congress in 1816 passed the 
first tariff designed primarily for the protection of home 
industries. That is, the tax thus placed on goods 
brought into the country made their price so high that 
American manufacturers could compete with those of 
foreign countries. 

Admission of Indiana. — In 1816 Indiana was admitted 
to the Union as a free State. It was the second State to be 
formed from the Northwest Territory and the nineteenth 
to enter the Union. 

Election of i8i6. — Madison declined to consider a 
third term and was succeeded by James Monroe of Vir- 
ginia, his Secretary of State. The Federalists voted for 



258 OUR REPUBLIC 

Rufus King, who carried only three States. Madison re- 
tired to MontpeHer, his Virginia home, where he hved to 
a ripe old age, revered and honored by the whole people. ^ 



CHAPTER LXIII 

NEW PROBLEMS AT HOME AND ABROAD 

Monroe's Administrations, 1817-25 

Monroe's Cabinet. — Monroe had been well trained for 
the Presidency by long public service,- and this helped 
him in selecting good men to assist him in his Cabinet. 
John Quincy Adams, the son of President Adams, was 
Secretary of State, William H. Crawford of Georgia was 
Secretary of the Treasury, John C. Calhoun was Secretary 
of War, and William Wirt of Virginia was Attorney 
General. Adams, Crawford, and Calhoun became char- 
acters of the first importance in our history. 

The Seminole War. — Soon after Monroe came into of- 
fice, trouble arose in the South. Florida then belonged to 

' Madison was always a popular man. He was never bitter in his 
manner toward anyone. He had been one of the chief advocates of the 
Constitution, but never a believer in "loose" construction. Hence, after 
the Constitution was adopted, he opposed Hamilton's policy and Wash- 
ington's methods. He was an able debater— the greatest of his time. 
It was said of him in debate: "When he had finished, nothing remained 
to be said." 

2 James Monroe was born in Westmoreland County, Virginia, April 
28, 1758. He attended William and Mary College and soon entered on a 
long career of public service. He was a soldier in the Revolution, and a 
member of the Virginia Legislature and of the Convention to ratify the 
Constitution. He was in turn Governor of Virginia, United States Sena- 
tor, Minister to France and England, Secretary of State, and President 
for two terms. He died July 4, 1831. 



NEW PROBLEMS AT HOME AND ABROAD 259 




Spain, but there was scarcely any government there. 
The Seminole Indians were kept stirred up by escaped 
criminals and runaway negroes from Georgia and South 
Carolina and by a few Spaniards who lived among them. 
They would cross the border 
into the United States to 
plunder and burn and then 
hasten back to Spanish territory 
before they could be punished. 
In 1818 the President sent 
General Andrew Jackson 
against them. Jackson misun- 
derstood the President and 
thought Florida was to be 
seized, so he led his army there 
and captured St. Marks and 
Pensacola. He captured also 
two British subjects who had been stirring up the Indians 
against the United States, and had them court-martialed 
and executed. 

Purchase of Florida. — It looked as if trouble might fol- 
low with both Spain and England because of these inci- 
dents, and many people in the United States thought 
that Jackson should be punished for what he had done. 
But all efforts to start such proceedings failed, and Jack- 
son was more popular than ever. In order to prevent 
further trouble, the United States opened negotiations 
with Spain for the purchase of Florida. In 1819 Spain 
ceded Florida to the United States for $5,000,000, and at 
the same time settled the Spanish boundary on the west, 
Texas being conceded by the United States to be part of 
Mexico. 



James Monroe 



260 



OUR REPUBLIC 



Settlement of the northern boundary. — In 1818 a 
treaty with Great Britain was made which settled upon 
the forty-ninth parallel as the northern boundary of the 
United States from the Lake of the Woods to the Rocky 
Mountains. Both Great Britain and the United States 
claimed the Oregon territory, but it was decided to post- 




The Tkkritory Affected by the Missouri Compromise 

pone the settlement of the boundary there and to have 
joint occupation of the country for ten years (page 300). 
New States admitted. — The western and southern move- 
ment of population reached its height in Monroe's admin- 
istration. By 1817 the population was large enough to 
justify the division of the Mississippi Territory, organ- 
ized in 1798, into two parts: one, the present Mississippi, 
which was admitted as a slave State in December of the 
same year ; the other, the present State of Alabama, which 
was organized as a Territory. Alabama grew so rapidly 



NEW PROBLEMS AT HOME AND ABROAD 261 

that it was admitted as a slave State in 1819. In the 
Northwest the growth in population was even more 
rapid, and Illinois quickly followed Indiana as a free 
State; so that by 1818 three States from the Northwest 
had been admitted to the Union of States. 

The Missouri compromise. — We have already seen 
that the North was gaining political strength faster than 
the South, and was opposed to the extension of slavery. 
This feeling first showed itself clearly when Missouri 
wished to enter the Union. 

Missouri had been settled largely by slaveholders, and 
in 1819 applied for admission as a slave State. The 
House of Representatives was willing to admit it only 
under the condition that gradual emancipation of slaves 
should take place. The Senate would admit it with 
slavery. Very bitter debates followed, and the whole 
country was much stirred up. The matter was finally 
settled (1820) by a compromise introduced by Senator 
Thomas of Illinois. Missouri was admitted as a slave 
State, but the rest of the Louisiana Purchase north 
of latitude 36°30', the southern boundary of Missouri, 
was to be forever free. This compromise was ver}^ 
favorable to the North. About the same time Maine was 
admitted as a free State, Massachusetts having consented 
to surrender her interest in this region. 

Reelection of Momroe. — In 1820 Monroe was reelected 
without opposition. Only one electoral vote was cast 
against him, and that by an elector who was in favor of 
him, but wanted Washington to be the only man who had 
ever had the honor of unanimous election. Because of 
this lack of opposition, the period has been called the ''Era 
of Good Feehng. " There was at this time only one party, 



262 



OUR REPUBLIC 



the Democratic-Republican; the FederaUsts had disap- 
peared. 

The Monroe Doctrine. — The most important act of 
]\Ionroe's administration was the statement of foreign 
pohcy known as the ''Monroe Doctrine." Shortly before 
this time Spain's colonies in South America had revolted 
because of harsh treatment, and their independence had 
been recognized by the United States. A league called 
the "Holy Alliance" had recently been organized by the 
rulers of several European countries, for the purpose of 
checking republican movements everywhere; and it was 
supposed that it would aid Spain to regain her colonies. 
Accordingly, in his message to Congress in 1823, Monroe 
warned the nations of Europe that North and South 
America were closed to further colonization by any Old 

World powers, and that the Uni- 
ted States would allow no inter- 
ference with the affairs of any 
American Government. This has 
been the fixed policy of the Uni- 
ted States ever since. Its effect 
at the time was to prevent Spain 
from receiving any aid in Europe. 
Russia had already occupied 
Alaska and was laying claim to 
California; but when INIonroe's 
message became public, the latter 
claim was dropped. 
The tariff of 1824. — In 1824 a new tariff law was 
passed, which raised the duties on imports still higher 
for the purpose of protection. Clay was its chief 
advocate. JNIany people in the South were strongly 




Henry Clay 



THE UNITED STATES IN 1820 263 

opposed to protection, because they were beginning to 
see that an agricultural section was injured by it. 

Election of 1824. — Four candidates for the Presidency 
appeared in 1824: William H. Crawford, Henry Clay, 
John Quincy Adams, and Andrew Jackson. Calhoun had 
been a candidate, but withdrew and was elected Vice 
President. When the electoral vote for President was 
counted, it was found that Jackson had received 99; 
Adams, 84; Crawford, 41; and Clay, 37. As no one had 
a majority, the election went to the House of Representa- 
tives, Clay's name was dropped because he was fourth, 
and the House considered the other three. Through 
Clay's influence, Adams was chosen. Clay was made 
Secretary of State by Adams, and Jackson and his friends 
at once said that a '^ corrupt bargain" had been made 
between them. The charge was probably false, but it 
injured Clay during the rest of his political life. 

CHAPTER LXIV 

THE UNITED STATES IN 1820 

Population. — Ever since the Revolution there had 
been a steady growth of population, and since 1790 it 
had more than doubled. This growth probably affected 
the West more than any other section. Settlements in 
the Ohio and Mississippi valleys had commenced before 
the Revolution, and by 1820 there were over two and a 
half million people Hving there. As has been seen, by 
1817 four States west of the Alleghanies had been ad- 
mitted to the Union; and in 1817 Mississippi came in as 
a slave State. Illinois as a free State and Alabama witii 
slavery were admitted in 1818 and 1819 respectively. 



264 OUR REPUBLIC 

There were three territories — Missouri, Arkansas, and 
Michigan. 

The East, too, had grown rapidly; for it had received 
the main body of European immigrants. The South had 
grown, but mainly from natural increase. Few immi- 
grants went there because labor was already supplied by 
slavery. Then, too, the South had lost many of its popu- 
lation, who had moved West to get away from slavery. 

The westward movement. — Various motives influenced 
the early settlers to go West: the abundance of fertile 
land ; the love of the wilderness with its rough, unrestrained 
life; and still more, the opportunity for a man to rise by 
his own exertions — to ''grow up with the country." 

The moving to the West was a picturesque sight. 
Whole families, sometimes whole communities, went to- 
gether, carrying all their possessions, including furniture, 
farming implements, cattle, and even the family dog. 
The men rode horseback; the women and children, in the 
wagons. At night they camped. The meat for their 
meals was often secured with the rifle from the abundant 
game, and the streams supplied plenty of fish. When the 
western country was finally reached, the bold pioneer 
would choose a good site for a house and farm, build a 
cabin, and provide his family with the meager comforts 
of frontier life. 

Internal improvements. — The roads to the West were 
few and bad, and traveling was difficult. After the 
Alleghany Mountains w^ere crossed, the rivers helped 
somewhat by furnishing natural highways; but until 
steamboats came into use, a journey upstream was very 
hard. Even. after steamboats were used, it was not pos- 
sible for them to go in shallow depths, and rivers did not 



THE UNITED STATES IN 1820 265 

always run where the settlers wished to go. Conse- 
quently, as the western country was filled, a demand 
arose for better facilities for communication with the 
East in order that trade might benefit both sections. 
The States were so poor that many propositions were 
made for National aid. As early as 1806 the Cumber- 
land Road from the Potomac to the Ohio had been 
begun. Other highways also were started, and many 
canals were planned. 

In 1808 Albert Gallatin proposed that the Federal 
Government build a canal from Boston to the sounds of 
North Carolina. In 1817 Congress passed a bill greatly 
extending the work of internal improvements. Madison, 
who was a strict constructionist, vetoed it on the ground 
that it was unconstitutional. New York then com- 
menced the construction of the Erie Canal from Lake 
Erie to the Hudson River, which was completed in 1825. 
Other States, especially Pennsylvania, made great steps in 
the building of roads and canals; and Maryland, Vir- 
ginia, and North Carolina also planned elaborate systems 
of internal improvements which, however, were never 
fully carried out. 

Life in the West. — Life in the West was primitive, but 
there was great opportunity for a young man of abil- 
ity and determination. A new democratic spirit arose 
there, because all alike began at the beginning, as it 
were; and this spirit has greatly influenced the develop- 
ment of the whole country. With it grew a new National 
spirit; for the Western States had been created by the 
LTnion and looked upon it as supreme, while most of the 
older States still regarded the Union as the creature of 
the States and dependent upon them. 



266 OUR REPUBLIC 

The chief occupation of the West at this time was 
agriculture. There was little wealth or poverty ; but 
many of the people owned large tracts of land, which 
later were very valuable. Everyone was deeply inter- 
ested in politics; and, as property was accumulated, 
there was a general desire for education. In the North- 
w^est public schools were established early, and there was 
a vigorous intellectual life. 

Development of the East. — While the West was going 
forward, the East was not lagging behind. With the in- 
crease of population went a great increase in wealth, par- 
ticularly after the War of 1812. Education became more 
general; and, as transportation facihties were improved, 
local differences disappeared. Newspapers were estab- 
lished in large numbers, and many of them had wide cir- 
culation. 

Sectional differences. — The differences between the 
North and the South, however, became more marked as 
time went on. Many of these were caused by slavery. 
At the opening of the Revolution, all the colonies had 
slaves; but the Northern States soon began to free theirs. 
Slavery in that section had never paid, and there were 
very few slaves. There was as yet little feeling that 
slavery was wrong. New England had continued to mo- 
nopolize the traffic in African slaves until 1808, when Con- 
gress passed a law forbidding it ; and even after that New 
England traders frequently smuggled slaves into the 
South. 

In the South cotton was fast becoming the crop of pri- 
mary importance, and everything else was neglected for it. 
Since Eh Whitney's invention of the cotton gin (1794), 
cotton raising had been very profitable. Slaves were 



THE UNITED STATES IN 1820 267 

needed for its cultivation, and thus slavery was fastened 
more tightly than ever upon the South. More and more 
the North turned to manufacturing and commerce, while 
the South bent every energy to the production of large 
crops of cotton. Slave labor was useless in manufacturing; 
so the South, about 1816, abandoned all hope of establish- 
ing manufacturing enterprises. In the North the towns 
and cities grew and exerted a great influence ; while in the 
South there were few cities, the population being chiefly 
rural. Wealth was in the hands of a comparatively small 
class of slaveholders, and they largely controlled poHtics. 
Free labor had a very poor chance in competition with 
slavery, and the South lost thereby. 

By 1824 seven of the original States had abolished 
slavery, and six had retained it. Of the nine new States, 
five had slavery. Thus there were at that time eleven 
free States and eleven slave States. As the free States 
saw less and less of slavery within their own borders, 
their feeling against it increased. 

With the growth of population in the North there was 
also a large increase in the number of representatives in 
Congress. Consequently the South had to rely upon the 
Senate to defeat any legislation hostile to slavery. This 
was the reason why free and slave States were kept evenly 
balanced in the admission of new States. In 1824 the 
South was in control of National poUtics, but after that the 
struggle for supremacy grew more bitter. As the years 
passed, slavery was placed on the defensive; and the 
South held more and more to the doctrine of strict con- 
struction. The North, growing industrially and needing 
from the Federal Government such aid as the protective 
tariff, became more National in sentiment. 



2G8 OUR REPUBLIC 

Education. — In the North there were systems of pubHc 
education in most of the States. In the South school 
systems had never been estabhshed. But just at this time 
North Carohna was beginning the movement that led to 
the establishment in 1840 of a system of public schools. 
Secondary education in the South at this time was fur- 
nished by tutors and private schools. 

Both sections had a number of colleges. In the North 
were Harvard, Yale, Princeton, Columbia, Brown, Dart- 
mouth, Amherst, Williams, Rutgers, and the University 
of Pennsylvania, most of which had been established 
prior to the Revolution. In the South were William and 
Mary, St. John's, Washington College (later Washington 
and Lee University), and Hampden-Sidney, which were 
founded before the Revolution; the University of North 
Carolina chartered in 1789, the University of Georgia 
founded in 1785, and South Carolina College founded in 
1801. Jefferson succeeded in 1819 in his efforts to estab- 
lish the University of Virginia. 

Literature. — By 1824 three American writers were at- 
tracting attention by their work. Washington Irving, by 
his "Knickerbocker's History of New York" and his 
sketches, had made even England acknowledge that there 
was a growing American literature. James Fenimore 
Cooper, the first important American novelist, was writ- 
ing his tales of American frontier life. With their back- 
woodsmen and Indians, they pictured scenes altogether 
new in literature; and the stories they told were quite 
unlike the tales of English writers. Besides these, a rising 
American poet, William Cullen Bryant, had written 
''Thanatopsis." 



FORMATION OF NEW PARTIES 269 

CHAPTER LXV 

FORMATION OF NEW PARTIES 

John Quincy Adamses Administration, 1825-29 

Difficulties of the administration. — John Quincy Adams ^ 
had had splendid training for the Presidency; but, like 
his father, he did not make friends easily. Throughout his 
term he saw the movement against him, but refused to 
do anything to strengthen himself. He thought that the 
President should not stoop to such a thing. Loyal serv- 
ice to the country was his way of ''electioneering," but 
it did not win him friends. Congress would not follow 
his recommendations, and the people still remembered 
the charges that had been made against him and Clay. 

Jackson's campaign. — Jackson's friends were very 
angry over his defeat in the election of 1824. They said 
that the will of the people had been disregarded, and at 
once directed their energies to securing Jackson's election 
in 1828, beginning a campaign that lasted four years. 
Jackson was very popular with the people, and the idea 
spread rapidly that he would make a good President be- 
cause he was one of the "plain people. " This feeling was 
particularly strong in the West. 

1 John Quincy Adams was born at Braintree, Massachusetts, July 11, 
1767. He was graduated at Harvard and was for a time a professor there. 
He was a lawyer by profession, but spent a large part of his life in public 
service, being Minister to Holland, Sweden, Prussia, Russia, and Great 
Britain. He was United States Senator, Secretary of State, and President 
for one term. After he retired to private life, he was elected to Congress 
and served for seventeen years, being best known as the strong debater 
and leader of the antislavery party. He died February 23, 1848. 



270 



OUR REPUBLIC 



Policy of Adams. — Adams was particularly interested 
in internal improvements and urged that the Federal 
Government should spend money in building roads and 
canals, but Congress would do little for fear of strengthen- 
ing the President. 

In 1826 a congress of the American republics was 
called to meet at Panama to discuss matters that con- 
cerned all. Adams and Clay were very anxious that 

delegates should be sent from 
the United States; but Con- 
gress delayed so long in the 
hope of injuring the President 
that, when the delegates reached 
Panama, the congress had ad- 
journed. 

Georgia and the Indians. — 
Within the limits of Georgia at 
this time lived the Creeks and 
the Cherokees. The United 
States had promised to remove 
them long before, but had 
failed to do so. The people of Georgia were annoyed 
at the delay, and now prepared to take control of 
the lands themselves. They began to try the Indians 
for offenses against the laws of the State, although by 
a treaty with the United States the Indians were not under 
the laws of the State. When Adams warned Governor 
Troup that he must stop having the Indian lands sur- 
veyed, the Governor answered defiantly, and Congress 
refused to take any action to support the President. As 
it was near the end of his Presidential term, Adams did 
nothing more about the matter; and when Jackson be- 




JoiiN (JuiNcY Adams 



FORMATION OF NEW PARTIES 271 

came President he refused to enforce a decision of the 
Supreme Court in favor of the Indians.^ Later a treaty 
was made, and the Indians moved west. 

The tariff of 1828. — During Adams's administration the 
manufacturers of New England were calUng for a higher 
tariff to protect their business, and in 1828 the duties were 
greatly raised. The whole South by this time was 
strongly opposed to protective tariffs and was particu- 
larly outraged by this one, which was known as ''the 
tariff of abominations." A large number of Southern 
State Legislatures passed resolutions declaring the law 
unconstitutional. South Carolina in particular was ex- 
cited, and Calhoun commenced writing against it. 

Election of 1828. — The Democratic-Republican Party 
now began to split into two new and definite parties, headed 
by Adams and Jackson. The supporters of Adams, who 
were in favor of the National Bank, a protective tariff, 
internal improvements, and strong powers in the central 
Government, called themselves National Republicans. 
Later they took the name Whigs. 

Jackson's party was made up of those who believed in 
a low tariff and were opposed to the National Bank. 
From this time it was known as the Democratic Party. 
The States' Rights men, or those who followed Jefferson 
in thinking that the States should keep most of the 
powers of government, also supported him. This party 
made its appeal to the people and waged a spectacular 
campaign in which hickory walking-canes and hickory 
''pole-raisings" played a conspicuous part. As a result, 
Jackson was elected by an overwhelming majority. 

' Jackson is reported to have said, " John Marshall made the law, now 
let him enforce it." 



272 OUR REPUBLIC 

CHAPTER LXVI 

TRIUMPH OF THE NEW DEMOCRACY 

Jackson's First Administration, 1829-33 

Meaning of Jackson's election. — The election of Jack- 
son ^ to the Presidency meant that a new era had begun 
in poHtics and that, more than ever before, the voice of 
the people would be heard in political discussions. His 
inauguration was attended by a great crowd.- Out of 
the West had come a new spirit of democracy, which 
was strong and honest, but ignorant and prejudiced. 
Its effect was to make a new party; and never was a 
party more in accord with the opinions of the mass 

1 Andrew Jackson was born in North Carolina, March 15, 1767. His 
parents were poor Irish immigrants. While a mere boy, he was a soldier 
in the Revolution. He became a lawyer and removed to Tennessee. 
There he rose rapidly and was at various times a member of the Constitu- 
tional Convention and of Congress, United States Senator, Justice of the 
Supreme Court of Tennessee, and Major General of militia. In the 
regular army, also, he rose to that rank. He won distinction by his defeat 
of the Creeks in the War of 1812 and by his defeat of the British at 
New Orleans. Later he crushed the power of the Seminoles in Florida. 
He was defeated for the Presidency in 1824, but was elected in 1828 and 
again in 1832. He died June 8, 184,5. He was one of the most interesting 
characters in our history, and likewise one of the strongest political 
leaders. 

2 "Judge Story, who was an eyewitness of the scene, declared that 
Washington City had never seen such a throng; and Daniel Webster wrote 
that men came from a distance of five hundred miles to see the 'Old 
Hero.' On the night following the inauguration, in their eagerness to 
shake hands with the President, rough men stood with muddy boots 
upon the costly furniture of the White House and smashed the fine chan- 
deliers which hung overhead. At one time during the reception the 
press was so great that Jackson was in danger of injury and was rescued 
with difficulty from the onslaught of his friends." — Garner and Lodge. 



TRIUMPH OF THE NEW DEMOCRACY 273 




of the people, or a leader more representative of his 
party. Jackson's administration may truly be called 
his "reign," but he reigned because a majority of the 
people wanted him to. Rough, 
untrained except by war, hard- 
ships, and privations, he had 
the virtues and the faults of 
the people; and they loved him. 

Untrained as he was, Jack- 
son was a man of unusual abil- 
ity; and his military habits of 
leadership enabled him to give 
the country a strong adminis- 
tration for eight years. But 
he was always a fighter. His 
terms of office were filled 
with a succession of quarrels, 
in most of which he won. 

The " spoils system." — The greatest evil of the ad- 
ministration was the establishment of the system of re- 
warding party service by appointment to public office. 
The cry of the supporters of Jackson had been "Turn the 
rascals out!" and when he was elected, he did not forget 
his friends who demanded office. Removals were made 
by the wholesale, and the appointment of his friends fol- 
lowed, regardless of their fitness. This system, as can 
easily be seen, set a bad example for the future. 

Jackson's Cabinet. — Jackson's Cabinet was not very 
strong. Martin Van Buren, a clever politician who had 
resigned the governorship of New York to become Secretary 
of State, was probably the most able member. But the 
weakness of his Cabinet did not make much difference 



Andrew Jackson 
In his last clays. 



274 



OUR REPUBLIC 



to Jackson; for he soon quarreled with most of its 
members, either because they were friends of Calhoun, 
whom he disliked, or because their wives would not visit 
Mrs. Eaton, wife of the Secretary of the Navy. As a 




The White House in Jackson's Day 
From a print of 1829. 



result, Jackson formed a new Cabinet. But even then he 
was more apt to take the advice of a number of his close 
friends who constituted what was called his "Kitchen 
Cabinet."! 

Rise of the Abolitionists. — In Jackson's first term 
the discussion of the slavery question became very bitter. 
Up to this time a great many people in the South, like 
Washington and Jefferson, had believed that slavery was 
an evil and had hoped to get rid of it some day. But as 
slavery became more profitable because of the growing 
importance of the cotton crop, there were fewer opponents 
to be found in the South. We are told that in 1827 the 

^ His confidential advisers were so called because they habitually came 
in to see him by a side door toward the back of the White House. These 
confidential advisers were some old friends of the President from Tennessee. 



TRIUMPH OF THE NEW DEMOCRACY 275 

South had five sixths of all the antislavery societies then 
organized in the United States, and that in three years 
(1824-26) about two thousand slaves were freed in 
North Carolina alone. In 1831 a bill providing for the 
gradual emancipation of all the slaves in Virginia was lost 
in the Legislature of that State by a close vote. But the 
same year William Lloyd Garrison established in Boston 
an antislavery paper called The Liberator; and the violent 
opponents of slavery, who were called Abolitionists be- 
cause they wanted slavery abolished, began to agitate the 
subject. Garrison declared the Constitution of the United 
States to be "a, covenant with death and an agreement 
with hell" because it permitted slavery. 

At first the Abolitionists were very unpopular in the 
North as well as in the South, and they were often mobbed. 
But in time they made converts to their cause in large 
numbers and began to flood Congress with petitions for 
the abolition of slavery in the District of Columbia. The 
Southern influence in Congress was strong enough to keep 
these petitions from being received: but as this was a 
denial of the constitutional right of petition, it made 
many enemies for the South. John Quincy Adams, who 
had become a member of Congress (1831), was for seven- 
teen years the champion of the antislavery forces. 

In the South a slave insurrection under the negro 
leader, Nat Turner, had caused great horror and alarm. 
It occurred in Virginia in 1831 and resulted in the death 
of sixty persons, principally women and children. The 
blame for it was attributed to the spread of Abolitionist 
sentiment. To prevent any repetition of such an uprising, 
the Southern States began to pass strict laws against the 
Abolitionists and refused to let abolition books and papers 



276 



OUR REPUBLIC 



come within their borders, whenever they could prevent 
it. The laws in regard to slaves were made much more 
strict, and the Southern States that had allowed free ne- 
groes to vote, took the privilege away from them. 

The Webster-Hayne debate.— In 1830 Senator Hayne 
of South Carolina made a sharp attack on New England 

and asserted that a State had 
a right to nullify any law of 
Congress that it believed uncon- 
stitutional. Daniel Webster, ^ 
Senator from Massachusetts, a 
lawyer and orator, made one of 
his most brilliant speeches in 
reply. In it he asserted that the 
Constitution had made a national 
government, not merely a com- 
pact between the States. He 
closed with the thrilling words, 
''Liberty and Union, now and 
forever, one and inseparable!" It was finer oratory than 
Hayne 's speech and struck a responsive chord in the 
North where feeling against the South was intense, and 
in the West where the Union had always been considered 
of more importance than the States. Hayne's theory as 
to the character of the Constitution was, however, based 




Daniel Webster 
Engraving of 1S40 from a da- 
guerreotype. 



1 Daniel Webster was born at Salisbury, New Hampshire, on January 
IS, 1782. He was educated at Dartmouth College and later studied law. 
He was a member of Congress from New Hampshire and then, having 
changed his residence, from Massachusetts. He was a member of the 
Constitutional Convention of the latter State and also a United States 
Senator. He was Secretary of State under Harrison, Tyler, and Fillmore. 
He died October 23, 1852. He was the greatest orator in our history and 
one of our greatest constitutional lawyers. 



NULLIFICATION AND THE BANK 277 

on history, and reiterated the views expressed in the 
Kentucky and Virginia resolutions (page 233) ; but Web- 
ster's speech was more in harmony with the rising national 
spirit of the North and West. 

Election of 1832. — In 1832 Jackson was elected Presi- 
dent by a large majority, and Martin Van Buren was 
chosen Vice President. The Presidential candidate of the 
National Republicans, or Whigs, was Henry Clay. A third 
party, called Anti-Masons, ^ nominated William Wirt. 

All the parties in this campaign had nominating 
conventions. This way of nominating had ta'ken the 
place of the old method of nominating by a Con- 
gressional caucus or by the State legislatures; and as a 
result it gradually drew every voter into some party 
organization. 

CHAPTER LXVII 

NULLIFICATION AND THE BANK 

Jackson^s Second Administration, 1833-37 
Van Buren's Administration, 1837-41 

Nullification in South Carolina.— In 1832 the 'tariff of 
abominations" was lowered slightly; but the idea of pro- 
tection was stili uppermost in the law, and the South was 
greatly angered and almost desperate. Finally, in No- 
vember, the Legislature of South Carolina called a con- 
vention of the people and passed an ordinance declaring 

^ It was so called because formed in opposition to the Masons. A man 
in New York named Morgan wrote a book to reveal the secrets of Masonry 
and disappeared soon afterwards. The Masons were accused of murdering 
him, and a political party was formed against them. 



278 



OUR REPUBLIC 



the tariff laws of 1828 and 1832 null and void, and for- 
bidding the collection of the duties in the State after 
February 1, 1833. Secession was threatened in case the 
United States resorted to force. 

Jackson's attitude. — More than a year before that 
time Jackson had intimated what he thought of nullifica- 




The City of Washington and the Capitol in 1832 
From a lithograph of that year. 



tion. At a Democratic banquet in Washington on the 
anniversary of Jefferson's birth, he had proposed as a 
toast, ''Our Federal Union, it must be preserved." This 
incident showed that Jackson was a man of strong na- 
tional feeling. But in addition to this he had a personal 
hatred for the leader of the nullification movement, John 
C. Calhoun.^ In reply to the nullification ordinance, 
Jackson issued a proclamation in which he said: 

' John Caldwell Calhoun was born in the Abbeville District of South 
Carolina, March 18, 1782. He was graduated from Yale with high honor 
and began the practice of law. He was a member of the South Carolina 
Legislature, and afterwards of Congress, serving successively as Represen- 



NULLIFICATION AND THE BANK 279 

"The laws of the United States must be executed. I have 
no discretionary power on the subject — my duty is emphatic- 
ally pronounced in the Constitution. Those who told you 
that you might peacefully prevent their execution deceive you. 
Their object is disunion, and disunion by armed force is 
treason." 

Jackson then asked Congress to give him power to en- 
force the tariff law. This was done by the passage of the 
"Force Bill." It looked as if bloodshed "would certainly 
follow; but here Henry Clay, the ''Great Pacificator," as 
he was called, introduced a bill providing for the gradual 
reduction of the tariff for the next ten years. This bill 
was passed, and South Carolina accepted the compromise. ^ 
South Carolina had won as far as securing a reduction of 
the tariff; but, on the other hand, the ''Force Bill" be- 
came a law, and nullification was dead for the future. 
Calhoun resigned the Vice Presidency and was elected 
Senator in order that he might assert in the halls of Con- 
gress the right of his State to nullify the tariff laws of the 
United States 

Destruction of the Bank. — As soon as Jackson became 
President, he attacked the National Bank as unconstitu- 
tional. Although its charter would not expire until 1836, 
those who favored its renewal thought that it would be a 
good plan to secure another charter in advance. They, 

tative and as Senator; later Secretary of War, Vice President, Sen- 
ator and Secretary of State. He was a stanch political follower of 
Jefferson and for many years was the chief leader of the Southern Demo- 
crats. He was an advocate of slavery and one of its earnest defenders. 
He was a man of patriotism and high character and one of the ablest of 
the nation's statesmen. He died March 31, 1850. 

1 In reply to a critic who told Clay that this compromise would defeat 
him for the Presidency, the Great Pacificator uttered the memorable 
words: "I would rather be right than President." 



280 OUR REPUBLIC 

therefore, had a bill put through Congress in 1832, pro- 
viding for a renewal of the charter. Jackson vetoed the 
bill, and thus the bank question became the chief issue in 
the Presidential campaign of 1832. Many people in 
the country believed with Jackson that a corporation 
possessing such large powers over the currency was dan- 
gerous. It was charged, too, with using its power in 
politics, and this made it unpopular. The feeling against 
the bank was particularly strong in the South and West. 

When Jackson was reelected (1832), after he had 
vetoed the bank bill, he considered that he had been given 
full power in the matter and had the Secretary of the 
Treasury stop depositing Government money in the bank 
(1833). This forced the bank to go out of business as a 
National institution. The friends of the bank were in- 
dignant at Jackson's high-handed action; and the Senate, 
which had a Whig majority, passed a resolution censuring 
him for it. 

The Government money was thereafter placed in State 
banks, called "pet banks" because they were chosen on 
account of Jackson's friendship for their owners. Many 
of these banks were weak and unreliable; and, like all 
other banks in the country, they were issuing notes in 
great quantities, often without proper security for paying 
them. 

Speculation followed everywhere in the country, but 
particularly in the West. At this time the Government 
revenue was so great that the Government could not use 
it all; and in 1836 it distributed twenty-eight million 
dollars among the States as a loan. This caused still 
further speculation. The sales of the public lands in- 
creased, but it was soon found that payment for them 



NULLIFICATION AND THE BANK 281 

was being made in bank notes. Many of these were en- 
tirely worthless; so, to prevent loss to the Government, 
Jackson issued an order, called the ''Specie Circular," to 
the effect that only gold and silver should be received in 
payment for land. This caused a demand for specie, 
which the banks could not supply; and many banks had 
to refuse to redeem their notes. This was one of the 
causes of the panic that came upon the country in 1837. 

New States. — In 1836 Arkansas came into the Union 
as a slave State; and the next year Michigan entered 
without slavery, making twenty-six States. 

Election of 1836. — Jackson could probably have had a 
third term had he desired it;^ but he was growing old 
and wanted to go back to ''The Hermitage," his home 
in Tennessee. So he contented himself with securing 
the Democratic nomination for Martin Van Buren, who 
was elected. The Whigs made no nominations, but scat- 
tered their electoral vote. General William Henry Harri- 
son, the hero of Tippecanoe, receiving the largest number. 

The panic of 1837. — Van Buren^ had the misfortune to 
come into office just as the panic of 1837 reached its 
height. It was due to many causes, but chiefly to specu- 
lation in the country and a bad banking system. It was 
also in part due to the financial disturbances of Jackson's 

^William Wirt said, "My opinion is, that Jackson may be President for 
life if he chooses." 

^ Martin Van Buren was born at Kinderhook, New York, December 5, 
1782. He became a lawyer and politician and served successively as 
State Senator, Attorney General, member of Congress, United States 
Senator, Governor of New York, Secretary of State, Minister to Eng- 
land, and President. He was a politician of great ability and he rose to 
the dignity demanded by the office when he became President. He 
died July 24, 1862. 



282 



OUR REPUBLIC 




Martin Van Buren 



administration. Banks failed, factories shut down, and 
business houses of all sorts closed their doors. There was, 
as a result, much distress in the country during the winter 

of 1837, and lack of food was 
not unusual. The business de- 
pression lasted for several years. 
Independent treasury. — To 
remedy the financial confusion 
and to take the place of the 
National Bank in regulating the 
currency. Van Buren induced 
Congress to establish an "in- 
dependent treasury" or "sub- 
treasury" system which directed 
that all Government money 
should be placed in Government 
vaults in different parts of the country. This system, 
which was first adopted in 1840, is in operation to-day. 

Second Seminole War. — An important act of Jackson's 
administration had been the formation of the Indian 
Territory as a home for the Indians who were being crowd- 
ed out of the States east of the Mississippi. In 1835 the 
Seminole Indians in Florida refused to move to the new 
reservation. This brought on a war that lasted seven 
years and cost over twenty million dollars. Osceola, the 
leader of the Seminoles, was a very able chieftain; and 
when he was finally captured (1837), it was thought that 
the war in Florida would stop. But it continued 
several years longer before the Indians were finally sub- 
dued (1842). This was the last Indian war east of the 
Mississippi River. 

Election of 1840. — Van Buren was blamed for all the 



NULLIFICATION AND THE BANK 



283 



evils of the panic and a great many things besides. Dur- 
ing his entire term the Whigs were organizing for the next 
campaign, and they did their utmost to make the Demo- 
crats unpopular. But despite the fact that Van Buren 
had lost strength with his own party, he was renominated. 
The Whigs nominated General William Henry Harrison 
of Ohio and John Tyler of Virginia, who had formerly 
been a Democrat. 

The campaign that followed was one of the most ex- 
citing in our history. The Whigs were full of confidence 
and enthusiasm 
and kept the peo- 
ple interested by 
speeches, proces- 
sions, barbecues, 
and campaign 
songs. Much at- 
tention was paid to 
Harrison's military 
record, and "Tip- 
pecanoe and Tyler 
too" was the Whig 
battle cry. The 
attention of the 

country was called to the fact that Van Buren was a man 
of wealth and, as the Whigs said, ''a little aristocrat." 
Harrison, on the other hand, was a poor man who had lived 
in a log cabin and was fond of hard cider, the poor man's 
drink. The cabin and the keg of hard cider became 
Whig emblems, and the campaign was known as the 
"hard-cider campaign." The result was a sweeping vic- 
tory for Harrison and Tyler. 



^^ 


K^.'ti. ' ■'" ' ['-■■'1 






^f«y ■ r- ,K^ 


■'-y^wr} 



A Campaign Picture of 1.s4U 
Ornamenting a " Tippecanoe or Log Cabin Quick 
Step, dedicated to Gen. William Henry Har- 
rison." 



284 OUR REPUBLIC 

CHAPTER LXVIII 

DEVELOPMENT OF THE COUNTRY, 1S2Q-40 

Area and population. — Between 1820 and 1840 the 
United States had acquired no new territory, but had 
spread its settlements over the fertile valleys of the Ohio 
and the Mississippi. Although only four States had been 
admitted into the Union during this period — Maine, 
Missouri, Arkansas, and Michigan — the population of the 
country had increased from about nine and one half 
millions to over seventeen millions. Of these seventeen 
millions over nine and one half millions were in the 
Northern States, and a little over seven millions (includ- 
ing nearly two and one half million slaves) were in the 
South. The census of 1830 showed that the center of 
population was farther South than it had been jn any 
other period of our history, yet from 1830 to 1840 the 
population in the older Southern States showed only a 
slight increase. The tide of foreign immigration had set 
in, and the number of immigrants trebled between 1830 
and 1837; yet the increase during this period represents 
for the most part the natural growth of the native popu- 
lation. In 1840 only eight and one half per cent of the 
population lived in cities of over eight thousand inhab- 
itants. The largest cities in the order of their size were 
New York, Philadelphia, Baltimore, and Boston. Cin- 
cinnati and Chicago were small towns, and Omaha and 
Denver had not been heard of. At the end of this period 
(1840) there were only three millionaires in the country. 

Overland routes. — In 1820, at a cost of seventeen mil- 
lion dollars, the Federal Government completed a great 



DEVELOPMENT OF THE COUNTRY, 1820-40 285 

road from Cumberland, Maryland, to Wheeling, West 
Virginia. The road was thirty-five feet wide, and was 
carefully graded and thoroughly macadamized. At a 
later date it was extended from Wheeling across Ohio and 
Indiana. We are told that one hundred and fifty six- 
horse teams passed daily over parts of this road, besides 
four or five four-horse coaches, which carried mail and 
passengers. Thousands of settlers passed over it, moving 
into the Mississippi valley. 

Hardy pioneers were also moving across the western 
plains, some of them going over the Oregon Trail into the 
far Northwest, while more than twenty thousand moved 
into Texas over the Santa Fe and other routes. 

Steamboats come into general use. — In no other country 
were steamboats so quickly introduced and used to such 
advantage as in the United States. During the period 
from 1830 to 1840 they plied on all our navigable rivers, 
gathering up the products of field and forest and carrying 
them to great centers like New York, Philadelphia, and 
Baltimore, where they were reshipped to foreign countries. 

In 1819 the Savannah, the first steamship to cross the 
Atlantic, sailed from Savannah, Georgia, to Liverpool by 
the combined use of steam and sails. In 1825 a steam- 
ship rounded the Cape of Good Hope and went to India. 
By 1840 large numbers of steamships were making regular 
voyages across the ocean without the aid of sails. This 
new means of ocean travel soon brought throngs of for- 
eign laborers, Vv^ho greatly increased the population of 
the country. The use of steam to propel war vessels 
(1836) revolutionized naval warfare. 

Canals. — Communication between interior points in 
various parts of the country was further improved by the 



286 OUR REPUBLIC 

building of canals. The most important of these was the 
Erie Canal (page 265), which furnished an all-water 
route between Chicago and New York City. Many had 
deemed such a canal an impossible undertaking. So, 
while the canal was being dug, it was dubbed ''Clinton's 
Big Ditch," in ridicule of Governor Clinton of New 




"^'^^"^"'^h 



i-MMbii&ililKrtitft-i^ im Yiin lk~wkt 



A New and Improved Canal Boat of 1830 
After a lithograph made from the engineer's drawing. 

York, who had enthusiastically supported the enterprise. 
When completed, the length of this canal was three 
hundred and sixty-three miles, and its width forty feet. 
Its depth was at first four feet, but later was increased to 
seven. It extended through hills and valleys and across 
swamps and rivers. The completion of the task was an- 
nounced by the firing of cannon placed five miles apart 
from Buffalo to New York. A triumphal procession of 
canal boats bearing Governor Clinton and other cele- 
brated men went over the entire route from Lake Erie to 
the Atlantic, where a keg of water from the lake was 
emptied into the ocean to signify that these two great bod- 
ies of water had been at last united. Within a year the 
cost of carrying freight from New York to Buffalo dropped 
from one hundred dollars to fourteen dollars a ton. 

The success of the Erie Canal led to the speedy build- 
ing of the Ohio Canal, which connected I^ake Erie with 
the Ohio River; and to another, the Chesapeake and 



DEVELOPMENT OF THE COUNTRY, 1820-40 287 

Ohio Canal, which established a water route between 
Pittsburg and Washington. 

Railroad development. — In 1828 the venerable Charles 
Carroll of Carrollton, the last surviving signer of the 
Declaration of Independence, inaugurated the work on 
the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad, which was soon to 
connect Washington and Baltimore. As he drove the 
first spade into the ground, he said, "I consider this 
among the most important acts of my life, second only 
to that of signing the Declaration of Independence." 
This was the first great railroad in America. In the 
decade from 1830 to 1840 the railroads of the United 
States increased from twenty-three miles to two thousand 
eight hundred and eighteen miles. 

There was at first much opposition to railroads because 
it was thought they "would do away with the market for 
oats and for horses, and that stage drivers would seek wages 
in vain." The earlier roads were built of stone cross-ties 
and wooden rails. With the discovery of anthracite coal, 
and its use in smelting iron (1839), railroads were needed 
to carry the coal from the mines to the smelting furnaces 
and factories; and railroad building was greatly stimu- 
lated. The first American railroad to carry passengers 
went into operation between Charleston and Hamburg, 
South Carolina, in 1830, and on it was used in the same 
year the first American-built locomotive engine. ^ The 
first railroad to carry the mails ran from Charleston to 

^ This engine was built at West Point, New York, and was named "The 
Best Friend of Charleston." The locomotive engine was perfected by 
George Stephenson, an English inventor. A member of Parliament who 
inspected Stephenson's first engine said, "Suppose, Mr. Stephenson, 
that a cow were to get in front of your engine moving at full speed, what 
would happen? " The inventor replied, "Itwouldbe very bad for the cow! " 



288 



OUR REPUBLIC 




Savannah, a distance of one hundred and thirty-six miles. 
This road when completed (1833) was the longest con- 
tinuous line in the world. 

Express and post. — The express business had its begin- 
ning in America in the plan of a young man for carrying 
packages between Boston and New York. At first he 
carried all the packages intrusted to his care in a carpet 
bag. In 1840 he had a strong competitor in the Adams 

Express Company, 
which was founded 
to carry express be- 
tween the same cit- 
ies over a different 
route. In 1833 a 
horse express, with 
relays of horses, 
was established be- 
tween Philadelphia 
and New York by 
the J ouryial of 
Commerce. This was to enable the Journal to publish the 
news from Congress a day earlier than any other New 
York paper. 

A few years later letters were sent in envelopes, though 
postage was still charged according to the distance. 

The telegraph. — In 1837 Samuel F. B. Morse was given 
a patent on the ''magnetic telegraph." After success- 
fully sending a message (January, 1838) over a wire three 
miles long, he applied to Congress for aid to establish a 
line from Washington to Baltimore. After Morse had 
waited anxiously for four years in poverty and want. 
Congress finally (1843) voted thirtj^ thousand dollars for 



SOUTH-CAROLINA RAIL-ROAD, 

Bttuxeu Charlcalon and Hamburg, S, C.opfotilt Augxula. (Geo.) 

DcpARTS Dailv — The f"l!owiEg is the Wiot-r Arrangement. 

PASSAGb: TO HAMBURG. 



South Carolina Railroad in 1837 

Heading of the bulletin in the " Miller's, Planter's, 

and Merchant's Almanac " for that year. 



DEVELOPMENT OF THE COUNTRY, 1820-40 289 



this enterprise. ^ The work was completed in the follow- 
ing year. This was the first regular telegraph line. ^j 
Agricultural implements. — For a long time the develop- 
ment of agriculture was greatly hindered by imperfect im- 
plements for gathering grain. 
The pioneer farmer used a sickle, 
with which he could cut only a 
handful of wheat or straw at a 
time. His work was made much 
lighter by the invention of the 
cradle, with which he could cut 
a whole sheaf at one stroke. 
Then came the wonderful grain- 
reaper, invented by Cyrus Hall 
McCormick of Virginia, who 
spent twenty years patiently 
working on the great problem. 
But when his invention was pat- 
ented (1831) and ready for use, the farmers would not buy 
the machine. He even went to the grain-raising section of 
the Northwest and urged the farmers to try his new inven- 
tion. His success was finally assured by the exhibition of 
his machine at the World's Fair in London in 1851, where 
it received a Council medal. A London paper declared that 

' The invention was greatly ridiculed in the debate on this bill. One 
member said that the invention was "fit for nothing"; another proposed 
an appropriation to construct a railroad to the moon. A member was 
defeated in the next election because he voted for the appropriation. 
While the bill was being debated, Morse was "leaning against the railing 
in the House in great agitation." In reply to words of comfort from a 
friend he said, as he placed his hand to his head, "I have an awful head- 
ache. I have spent seven years in perfecting this invention, and all that 
I had. If the bill fails, I am ruined. I have not money enough to pay 
my board bill." 




Samuel F. B. Muhse 



290 OUR REPUBLIC 

the introduction of this invention alone was worth to the 
farmers of England the whole cost of the exhibition. 

Other American inventions of this period have greatly 
reduced the cost of planting and harvesting crops. The 
threshing machine displaced the old hand-flail, thereby 
enabling farmers to separate and clean their grain with 
one third of the former cost. Improved plows have saved 
two thirds; drills for planting seeds, one third; and horse 
rakes and horse hayforks, one half. 

Development of manufacturing. — In this country, 
manufacturing by the factory system began in Lowell, 
Massachusetts. The first factory in that town, now one 
of the greatest manufacturing centers in the country, was 
started in 1821. A year later a copper rolling mill, then 
the only one in America, was established in Baltimore. 
In 1829 matches began to displace the old tinder boxes. ^ 
Damask table linen was manufactured in Pittsburg as- 
early as 1828. In that year also paper was made from 
straw, and planing machinery was introduced. About 
this time (1829) there was manufactured in Rhode Island 
figured muslin, probably the first ever made. Before the 
end of the same year Massachusetts had introduced 
calico printing and produced the first American cutlery, 
and New York City had begun the manufacture of gal- 
vanized iron. The invention of platform scales by the 
Fairbanks Brothers of Vermont, about 1830, was of in- 
estimable value to the commercial world. Then followed 



1 In 1S35 some meddlesome persons attempted to hinder a meeting of 
Democrats in New York by suddenly putting out the Hghts, but one of 
the members had "Locofoco matches" in his pocket and quickly lighted 
the lamps again. This incident caused the Democrats to be called "Loco- 
focos, " a name which they held for a period of about ten years. 



DEVELOPMENT OF THE COUNTRY, 1820-40 291 



the discovery of photography and the process of making 
daguerreotype pictures.^ In this period pins and hosiery 
were made for the first time by machinery. The Na- 
smyth steam hammer was invented in 1838. In fact, the 
multipUcity of inventions so greatly increased the work 
of the Patent Office that in 1836 it was made a separate 
bureau. 

Life in the cities. — The difficult problem of supplying 
fuel for use in cities was first solved by the use of coal. 
Soon furnaces were 
invented for burn- 
ing anthracite or 
hard coal. There 
were no official fire 
departments, and 
each citizen was 
required to keep in 
his front hall a 
water bucket for 

use in fighting fire. Instead of having the streets swept 
at the public expense, every householder was required 
by law to sweep the walk in front of his own home. 
The thoroughfares were roughly paved, or not paved 
at all. In some cities it was ordered that on Sunday, 
during the hours of service, chains should be stretched 
across the streets in front of the churches, to prevent the 
disturbance of clattering vehicles. Illuminating gas 
used for lighting streets of cities slowly displaced can- 
dles and whale-oil lamps. At first everyone seemed to 
oppose the use of "lamps without wicks." The gas had 

1 Dr. John W. Draper, of New York, was "the first person who photo- 
graphed the human face" (1839). 




A Coach Still in Use in 1S30 
From a contemporary print. 



292 OUR REPUBLIC 

a bad odor, and some persons argued that by cutting the 
gas pipes burglars could leave a city in darkness. Al- 
though gas was introduced into Baltimore as early as 
1816, four years later only three people in that city were 
using it in their houses. It was introduced into Boston 
in 1822, New York in 1825, and Philadelphia in 1829. 

Prison reforms. — In the earlier years of the Republic 
thousands of criminals and insane persons were crowded 
together into dingy and dark prisons, where they were 
poorly fed and clad and often cruelly whipped. Through 
the efforts of Edward Livingston, the great reformer, 
these conditions were exposed, and improvements were 
soon introduced. In the period from 1820 to 1840 the 
whipping post, pillory, stocks, branding irons, and other 
implements of torture, w^hich had been used from time 
immemorial, were abolished in many parts of the countr}^ 
Penitentiaries were established at the instance of re- 
formers who claimed that juries often turned criminals 
loose upon society rather than subject them to the se- 
verity of the old forms of punishment. In 1824 New 
York founded the first separate prison for youthful 
criminals ; and about the same time provisions were made 
for religious instruction in the prisons of the country. 

For many centuries imprisonment for debt was a pun- 
ishment imposed throughout the civilized world. ^ It was 
■estimated that in the year 1829 the prisons of ]\Iassa- 
chusetts received three thousand prisoners for debt; New 
York, ten thousand; Pennsylvania, seven thousand; and 

^ One of the saddest and most disgraceful incidents in American his- 
tory was the imprisonment of Robert Morris (pages 178 and 204), the 
great financier and statesman. In his old age he met with misfortunes 
that carried him to a debtor's prison. 



DEVELOPMENT OF THE COUNTRY, 1820-40 203 

other States in like proportion. We are told that the 
proportion of debtors to other prisoners throughout the 
country was as five to one. Many of these prisoners were 
honest debtors who were unable to pay because of mis- 
fortunes. In 1831 a man was kept in a Philadelphia 
prison thirty-two days because of a debt of two cents. 

Literary progress. — During the period from 1820 to 
1840, Bryant, Irving, and Cooper were still proving our 
claim to a literature of our own. As our national life pro- 




Hawthorne 



PuE 



Longfellow 



Maury 



gressed away from European ideals, so our literature be- 
came still more distinctly American. After 1820 the 
writers who won a world-wide reputation for themselves 
and for American literature were, chiefly, Hawthorne, Poe, 
Longfellow, Emerson, Holmes, Lowell, and Whittier. 
The great historians of the period were Prescott, Jared 
Sparks, and George Bancroft; among the scientists were 
Audubon, Asa Gray, Louis Agassiz, and Matthew F. 
Maury; and among the writers on legal subjects were 
Kent, Story, and Wheaton. 



294 



OUR REPUBLIC 



CHAPTER LXIX 



FAILURE OF THE WHIG PROGRAMME 

Harrison's and Tyler's Administration, 1841-^5 

Death of President Harrison. — President Harrison ^ died 
one month after his inauguration. He was succeeded by 

Vice President Tyler. This was 
the first time in the history of the 
country that a Vice President 
had become Chief Executive. 

Tyler and the Whig Party. — 
John Tyler 2 entered upon his 
duties as President two days 
after the death of President 
Harrison. Everyone was ask- 
ing the question whether Tyler 
would carry out the views of the 
Whig Party. It was generally 
known that he was opposed to 
many Whig policies and that he had stated his opposition 

1 William Henry Harrison was born in Charles City County, Va., Feb- 
ruarj' 9, 1773. His name is chiefly associated with the development of 
the Middle West. He was successively delegate to Congress from the 
Northwest Territory, Governor of Indiana Territory, member of Congress 
from Ohio, and United States Senator. In 1811 he defeated the Indians 
at Tippecanoe, and in 1813 the British at the Battle of the Thames. He 
went to Colombia as Minister in 1828. In 1836 he was defeated for the 
Presidency, but was elected in 1840. He died April 4, 1841. 

2 John Tyler was born in ChaHes City County, Va., March 29, 1790. He I 
was educated at William and Mary College. He studied law and was at 
different times a member of the Virginia Legislature and Representative! 
and Senator in the National Congress. He was Governor' of Virginia, | 
1825-27; President of the United States, 1841-45; and member of the] 
Peace Conference and the Confederate Congress, 1861. He died in 1862. 




William Henry Harrison 



FAILURE OF THE WHIG PROGRAMME 295 




John Tyler 



to the bank and internal improvements. Clay, the real 
leader of the Whig Party, thought that the President 
could be forced to accept all the 
party measures, even declaring, 
'\Should the President resist, 
I will driye him before me." 
But to the surprise of his party 
leaders, Tyler vetoed two Na- 
tional Bank bills which they had 
advocated. He was unjustly 
accused of bad faith ; and all his 
Cabinet resigned except Web- 
ster, the Secretarj^ of State. 

The Webster-Ashburton Treaty. 
— Daniel Webster remained in 
Tyler's Cabinet until he could 

make a treaty with England which would settle the 
boundary between the United States and Canada on 
the northeast. This treaty, known, after the men who 
negotiated it, as the Webster-Ashburton Treaty (1S42), 
settled what is now the boundary between Maine and 
Canada. The treaty contained also an agreement be- 
tween the United States and Great Britain to suppress 
the slave trade. 

Minor incidents. — In Rhode Island much dissatis- 
faction was manifested against the old charter, which had 
served as a State constitution since the Revolution 
(page 86). It allowed only one third of the men to vote. 
A popular government was set on foot which drew up 
a new constitution, chose a Legislature, and elected 
Thomas W. Dorr Governor. This gave the State two gov- 
ernors and two legislatures. Both sides appealed to the 



296 OUR REPUBLIC 

President for support. Tyler recognized the old govern- 
ment under Samuel King, and this brought to an end 
Dorr's "rebellion." But the outbreak led to the adoption 
of a new constitution, giving more men the right to vote. 

In Tyler's administration the Mormons, or Latter-day 
Saints, as they called themselves, moved to Utah under 
the leadership of Brigham Young. Before this time 
the Mormons had lived in Missouri and Illinois. The 
Mormon Church taught that a man should have more 
than one wife. Under a law passed by the linited States 
Government, the practice of polygamy, as it is called, 
was finally abandoned (1890). 

At this time there was great activity in western ex- 
ploration. John C. Fremont explored the valley of the 
Great Salt Lake, and the Oregon country, going as far 
as southern California. In honor of his work as an 
explorer, Fremont was called the "Pathfinder." 

In 1843 a missionary, Marcus W^iitman, who had lived 
several years in Oregon, led a body of American settlers 
across the mountains into that beautiful country. Other 
settlers followed Fremont and Wliitman and helped to gain 
the Far West for the United States. 

In 1845 Florida was admitted as a slave-holding State. 

Independence of Texas. — In 1820 Moses Austin of 
Connecticut moved to Texas and secured permission from 
Mexico to settle in that section. Soon many settlers from 
the South came, bringing their slaves. Mexico forbade 
the importation of slaves into Texas and tried to stop 
the immigration of all persons into that country from 
the United States. As a result, the Texans under the lead 
of Sam Houston finally revolted (1833) against Mexico. 
This brought on a war. 



FAILURE OF THE WHIG PROGRAMME 297 



Some brave Texans were besieged in the Alamo, an old 
Spanish mission building near San Antonio. In spite of 
the fact that they had only a few bushels of corn for food, 
their leader answered the demand to surrender with a 
report from his cannon. They 
were finally overpowered, and 
all persons in the fort except 
a woman, two children, and ^ 
a negro servant were cruelly 
put to death. Among the 
heroes who were slain was 
Colonel David Crockett. At 
Goliad five hundred Texans 
were captured and cruelly 
murdered by the Mexicans. 
The war ended with the 
battle of San Jacinto (1836), 
where six hundred Mexicans 
were killed and seven hun- 
dred made prisoners, while the Texans lost only two 
killed and twenty-three wounded. The Republic of 
Texas was permanently organized with Sam Houston 
as President (1836). The United States and many 
European countries promptly recognized the independ- 
ence of the new nation. 

Annexing Texas. — Texas had no desire to remain an 
independent nation, as nearly ninety per cent of her pop- 
ulation had come from the United States. The Southern 
people were anxious to secure Texas so as to have an 
outlet for their slave population and thus increase their 
strength in Congress. For this reason annexation was 
opposed by the North. Van Buren refused to make 




General Sam Hocston 



298 



OUR REPUBLIC 



a treaty of annexation, but such a treaty was made by 
Tyler. Although this treaty was rejected by the Senate, 
a joint resolution of Congress for the admission of Texas 
was passed on the last day of Tyler's administration. 
The State finally entered the Union, December 29, 1845. 
Presidential campaign of 1844. — The principal issue 
before the people in the campaign of 1844 was the annex- 
ation of Texas and Oregon. The Whig Convention 
met first and una-nimously nominated Clay by accla- 
mation. When the Democratic Convention met, a ma- 
jority of its members favored the nomination of Van 
Buren for President; but he was defeated because of his 
opposition to the immediate annexation of Texas. The 
Democratic nomination finally went to James K. Polk, of 

Tennessee, who is generally 
referred to as the first Presi- 
dential '^dark horse"; that is, 
a candidate not considered 
for the office be- 
fore the time of his 
nomination. The 
Abolitionists, or 
Liberty Party, 
nominated Birney. 
Everywhere was 
heard the dem.and 
of the Democratic 
orators for the oc- 
cupation of Oregon 
and the annexation of Texas ''at the earliest practical 
period." Clay at first declared against the annex- 
ation of Texas, but later wrote letters that seemed to 




The Disputed Boundary of the Oregon 
Country 



WAR WITH MEXICO AND ITS RESULTS 299 

favor such a policy. This cost him the vote of the State 
of New York, and the thirty-six electoral votes of that 
State decided the election in favor of Polk. After the 
success of the Democratic Party in the election of 1844, 
President Tyler induced Congress to pass a joint resolu- 
tion for the annexation of Texas before the expiration 
of his term of office.^ 



CHAPTER LXX 

WAR WITH MEXICO AND ITS RESULTS 

First Years of Polk's Administration, 1845-4S 

The Oregon question. — The first important matter 
that demanded the attention of President Polk- was the 
settlement of the claim of the United States to what was 
known as the Oregon country. Spain had surrendered 
to the United States (1819) her claim to territory north 
of the forty-second parallel, and Russia had agreed to 
54° 40' as the boundary line between her possessions and 
those of the United States west of the Rocky Mountains 
(1825). But the title of the United States between these 
lines was disputed by Great Britain, and the two nations 

1 Texas was admitted on condition that the territory might be divided 
into five States, if its citizens should so desire. It is the largest State in 
the Union, being five times the size of England and more than four times 
as large as all the New England States combined. Its length from 
north to south is greater than the distance from Chicago to Mobile, and 
its length from east to west is greater than the distance from Washing- 
ton City to St. Louis. 

^ James K. Polk was born in Mecklenburg County, North CaroUna, 
November 2, 1795. In LS20 he became a lawyer; was member of Congress 
for Tennessee, 1825-39; and Governor of Tennessee, 1839-41. He was 
President, 1845-49. He died June 15, 1849. 



300 



OUR REPUBLIC 



agreed to occupy it jointly. In 1844 the Democratic 
Party raised the popular campaign cry, ''Fifty-four forty 
or fight." But in 1846 it was finally agreed that Oregon 
should be divided between the two nations, England 

receiving the territory north 
of the forty-ninth degree and 
the United States all the coun- 
try to the south of it. 

Events leading to the Mexican 
War. — Mexico claimed all the 
country west and south of the 
Nueces River, while Texas 
claimed that her western and 
southern boundary extended to 
the Rio Grande. To protect 
the claim of Texas, Polk sent 
General Taylor with four thou- 
sand men to the Nueces River 
to meet any force that might be 
sent from Mexico, that country having already threatened 
war if Texas should be annexed to the United States. 

General Taylor, acting under orders from the President, 
finally crossed the Nueces and was attacked by a force of 
Mexicans. The President at once sent a special message 
to Congress, saying: "Mexico has invaded our territory 
and shed American blood upon American soil. " Congress 
promptly declared war by an almost unanimous vote. 

Polk had broader schemes than the annexation of this 
disputed territory. He wished to acquire from Mexico 
all of what is now New Mexico, Arizona, and California. 
Congress supported him and put several armies in the 
field. 




James K. Polk 



WAR WITH MEXICO AND ITS RESULTS 301 



General Taylor's army. — After the attack upon his 
army that led to the declaration of war, Taylor crossed 
the Rio Grande and defeated the Mexicans in a number of 
engagements. Finally, he captured Monterey, which was 
the principal stronghold in northern Mexico, hoping that 
this would end the 
war. But Santa 
'Anna, the Mexican 
general, gathered 
an army of twenty 
thousand men and 
marched against 
General Taylor, 
who then had a 
force of about five 
thousand men sta- 
tioned in a moun- 
tain defile near 
Buena Vista. In 
reply to Santa An- 
na's demand for 
surrender, the 
American com- 

m a n d e r said, The Disputed Boundary of Tex.\s 

' ' General Taylor 

never surrenders." The Mexicans suffered a disastrous 
defeat, losing nearly two thousand men, including pris- 
oners, while the American loss was about seven hun- 
dred and fifty. This great victory made a popular hero 
of General Taylor, who was henceforth known as "Old 
Rough and Readj\ " 

Campaigns in the Far West. — General Stephen \V. 




302 



OUR REPUBLIC 



Kearney was sent upon an expedition against New Mexico 
and California. He captured Santa Fe without firing a 
gun. He then went into California where he was met 
by Fremont/ the "Pathfinder," who with Commodore 
Stockton had taken possession of that country. 



i» 




General Taylor at Buena Vista 



General Scott's campaign. — In March, 1847, General 
Scott with twelve thousand men captured Vera Cruz and 
took up his march against the Mexican capital about two 
hundred miles to the northwest. At Cerro Gordo he de- 
feated Santa Anna at the head of thirteen thousand ]\Iexi- 
cans, completely routing him from a strong position, kill- 
ing and wounding one thousand men and capturing three 
thousand more. The Americans lost only four hundred 

1 Fremont had already been chosen Governor of California by the Amer- 
ican settlers. These settlers had driven the Mexicans out of the country 
before they had heard of the war between Mexico and the United States. 



WAR WITH MEXICO AND ITS RESULTS 303 



and thirty-one, including sixty-one killed. Santa Anna 
attempted to escape in a carriage, but was forced to mount 




a mule. He left in his 
vehicle a large sum of 
gold, some private pa- 
pers, and his wooden leg. 

After several other en- 
gagements in which the 
Americans were success- 
ful, Scott's army ap- 
peared before the strong 
fortifications of the City 
of Mexico. About a 
month later (September, 
1847) the city was taken ; 
and after the fall of 
their capital, the Mexicans were forced to sign a treaty 
of peace. 

Results of the Mexican War. — The Mexican War af- 
forded excellent training to a number of young officers 
who were to become distinguished leaders in the future 



Marches of the American Army in 
THE Mexican War 



304 



OUR REPUBLIC 



history of the country. Among these were Jefferson 
Davis and Earl Van Dorn with General Taylor, and Rob- 
ert E. Lee, Ulysses S. Grant, and Thomas J. Jackson with 
General Scott. 



IOWA 
TERRITORY 




Territory Acquired from Mexico by the Treaty of 1843 

By the Treaty of Guadalupe-Hidalgo (February, 1848) 
Mexico gave up all claim not only to territory north of the 
Rio Grande, but to New Mexico and upper California, in- 
cluding Arizona, Nevada, Utah, and a part of Colorado. 
In return for this territory in the Far West the United 
States paid Mexico $15,000,000. 

These accessions were followed by the Gadsden Pur- 
chase (1853), by which the United States acquired from 
Mexico for $10,000,000 the territory that is now part of 
southern Arizona and New Mexico. 

Admission of new States. — Texas came into the Union 



WESTWARD EXPANSION 305 

in 1845, as a slaveholding State (pages 298 and 299). Iowa 
was admitted in 1846, and two years later Wisconsin also 
became a State. As both of these were free States, their 
admission restored the balance of power between the 
North and the South, which had been broken by the ad- 
mission of Florida and Texas as slave States. 



CHAPTER LXXI 

WESTWARD EXPANSION AND ITS PROBLEMS 

End of Polk's Administration, 1848-49 

Discovery of gold. — Before the treaty of peace had been 
made with Mexico, gold had been discovered in Cali- 
fornia (January, 1848) in a mill race belonging to Captain 
Sutter. The news spread rapidly, and great crowds flocked 
to that region. Men from the older States left their 
work and joined in the mad rush westward. The ' 'forty- 
niners," as they were called, went in long caravans across 
the sandy plains and over the rugged mountains, or by 
water route around Cape Horn, or across the Isthmus of 
Panama, determined to reach the land of gold. Many of 
these adventurers lost their lives in the attempt to reach 
California ; and we are told that the emigrant paths across 
the plains were marked by the bleached bones of horses, 
oxen, and even of men, and by the broken wagons strewn 
along the way. 

The prices of food and clothing rapidly advanced in 
this new country. Spades sold for $10 each, and flour 
for $50 a barrel. 

As a result of this westward migration California had, 



306 OUR REPUBLIC 

within fifteen months after the discovery of gold, more 
inhabitants than many a State; and it was applying for 
admission to the Union as a State even before it had been 
organized into a Territory. 

The slavery controversy. — Since the first days of 
William Lloyd Garrison's Liberator, antislavery petitions 
had been sent to Congress. In 1837, Congress had 
passed a resolution known as the ''Gag Law," which laid 
all antislavery petitions upon the table. This had greatly 
incensed the antislavery people, who charged the South 
with attempting to prevent freedom of speech. In 1844, 
the "Gag Law" rule was abandoned. In 1842 certain 
citizens of Massachusetts sent a petition to Congress, 
praying for a dissolution of the Union. 

Before the end of the Mexican War, David Wilmot, a 
Pennsylvania Democrat, had introduced a resolution 
(1846) providing that in all territory to be obtained from 
Mexico, slavery should be forever forbidden. This 
resolution, known as the Wilmot Proviso, failed to become 
a law; but it greatly aroused the sections and increased 
their enmity toward each other. Calhoun declared that 
Congress should not ''deprive the citizens of any of the 
States of this Union from emigrating with their property 
into any of the territories of the United States." 

Presidential campaign of 1848. — The platforms of the 
Whig and Democratic parties in 1848 contained no refer- 
ence to slaver}^ each party having both proslavery and 
antislavery men. The Whigs nominated General Zachary 
Taylor of Louisiana, and Millard Fillmore of New York. 
As Taylor was a slaveholder, he won the support of the 
Southern people; and his recent military career brought 
him a large vote in the North. Strange to say, the 



THE CALIFORNIA COMPROMISE 



307 



Democratic Party, whose strength was principally in the 
South, nominated Senator Lewis Cass of Michigan, an 
antislavery man, and William 0. Butler of Kentucky. 
A number of antislavery men formed the Free-Soil 
Party, which nominated Martin Van Buren of New York, 
and Charles Francis Adams of Massachusetts. 

Although a large Free-Soil vote showed the rapid de- 
velopment of antislavery sentiment in the North, Taylor ^ 
and Fillmore were elected. 



CHAPTER LXXII 



THE CALIFORNIA COMPROMISE 



Taylor^s Administration, 1849-50 



California applies for admission 
as a State. — In 1849 California, 
without having been organized 
as a territory, adopted a consti- 
tution and applied for admission 
as a free State. The slavery is- 
sue at once became foremost in 
the minds of the people. It 
aroused the Southern people, 
who contended that the Missouri 
Compromise line of 36° 30' should 




Zachary Taylor 



' Zachary Taylor was born in Orange County, Virginia, September 24, 
1784. He entered the army as first lieutenant in 1808, and rose rapidly. 
He fought in the War of 1812; defeated the Indians under Black Hawk, 
1832, and the Seminoles in 1837, became Commander-in-Chief in Florida 
and later in the Southwest. He won success in the Mexican War. He 
died July 9, 1850. 



308 OUR REPUBLIC 

be extended to the Pacific Ocean, and that it should be the 
dividing hne between free and slave territory in the 
Mexican cession. A long and bitter debate followed, 
which aroused the angry passions of the representatives of 
both sections. 

The California Compromise. — Henry Clay,^ the "Great 
Pacificator," who had retired from public life seven years 
before, to spend his last days in the quietude of his home 
at Ashland, Kentucky, was called from his retirement 
in the hope that he might again bring peace to the country. 
He responded, and shortly after returning to the Senate 
introduced a bill, which came to be known as the 
Compromise of 1850. This bill provided for: (1) the 
admission of California as a free State; (2) the organiza- 
tion of New Mexico and Utah as Territories without any 
provision as to slavery; (3) the continuation of slaverj^ 
but the abolition of the slave trade in the District of 
Columbia; (4) the passage by Congress of a more effective 
fugitive slave law; (5) the purchase from Texas of her 
claim to a part of New Mexico. 

These resolutions contained so many important features 
that the bill was called the ''Omnibus Bill," For a period of 
seven months it absorbed the attention of the entire coun- 
try, and it looked as if secession might come at any time. 

^ Henry Clay was born in Hanover County, Virginia, April 12, 1777. 
He removed to Kentuckj- and was a member of the convention that 
adopted the constitution of the State. He was United States Senator, 
member of Congress for many years, and five times Speaker of the House. 
He was a candidate for the Presidency in 1824, 18.32, and 1844, but each 
time was defeated. He was the author of the Compromise of 1850. Few 
men in our public life have had such devoted friends and followers. He 
was the founder of the Whig Party and its leader for many years. He 
died June 29, 1852. 



i 



THE CALIFORNIA COMPROMISE 



309 



Debates on the great Compromise. — The debates on 
Clay's bill were conducted by the ablest men in both 
houses of Congress. When Clay first arose to address the 
Senate (February 5, 1850), the lobbies and galleries were 
crowded to overflowing, many people having come 
several hundred miles to hear his speech. When his 
friends insisted that he was too 
ill to speak, he said, "I consider 
our country in danger, and if I 
can be the means in any measure 
of averting that danger, my 
health and life is of little conse- 
quence." For two days he plead- 
ed for toleration and concession. 
His fervid eloquence, which 
flowed from a heart filled with 
love for his country, carried con- 
viction with it and calmed the 
fierce storm. 

Then came (March 4th) the parting speech of John C. 
Calhoun, the great Southern patriot, who was everywhere 
known as the foremost champion of States' rights. As he 
was too ill to speak, his address was read by Senator 
Mason of Virginia. The scene was pathetic beyond de- 
scription. " There he sat, motionless, like a statue, with 
the hand of death upon him, listening to his own words 
from another's mouth." He urged the North to concede 
to the South "an equal right in the acquired territory " ; to 
"do her duty by causing the stipulations relative to fugi- 
tive slaves to be fulfilled; and cease the agitation of the 
slavery question. " The concluding words of this great 
speech were: 




John C. Calhoun 



310 



OUR REPUBLIC 



" Having faithfully done my duty to the best of my ability, 
both to the Union and to my section, throughout this agitation, 
I shall have the consolation, let what will come, that I am free 
from all responsibility." 

Webster followed three days later with his cele- 
brated " Seventh-of -March Speech," for which both 




The Unitki) S-iAT?:s Sexatf; i\ Skssion in 1S50 
From a lithograph of that period. 

sides had waited with great anxiety. He began as fol- 
lows : 

" I wish to speak to-day, not as a Massachusetts man nor as a 
Northern man, but as an American. ... I have a duty to per- 
form, and I mean to perform it with fidelity. ... I speak to- 
day for the preservation of the Union. ' Hear me for my cause.' " 

Although he opposed slavery, he criticised the Northern 
States for not performing fully their constitutional duties 
in regard to the return of fugitive slaves who had escaped 
to free soil, saying: 



THE CALIFORNIA COMPROMISE 311 

" In that respect, it is my judgment that the South is right 
and the North is wrong." 

In another great speech (July 26th), in which he urged 
the adoption of his bill, Clay said: 

" Will you go home and leave all in disorder and confusion, all 
unsettled, all open? . . . We shall stand condennied in our own 
consciences, by our own constituents, and by our own country." 

Clay's Compromise finally adopted. — The eloquence of 
these great men once more brought the sections together; 
for although Clay's original bill was defeated, its most 
important features w^ere finally adopted by the passage 
of separate measures. 

The opposition to the bill from the Abolitionists of the 
North was uncompromising, William H. Seward, of New 
York, created a sensation by declaring that there was ''a 
higher law than the Constitution, " meaning that accord- 
ing to moral Ia\v there should be no slavery. Salmon 
P. Chase, of Ohio, also argued against the Compromise, 
claiming that Congress had no right to pass a fugitive 
slave law. 

Death of President Taylor. — In the midst of the " Com- 
promise " debate, President Taylor died. Millard Fill- 
more,^ the Vice President, thus became the second 
accidental President in the history of the countr3\ 

1 Millard Fillmore was born in Cayuga County, New York, February 7, 
1800. He became a lawyer in 1823. He was successively member of the 
New York Legislature and of the National Congress; Comptroller of the 
State of New York and Vice President under Taylor. He was Presi- 
dent 1850-53, and in 1S56 ran again, but was defeated. He died in 1874. 



312 



OUR REPUBLIC 



CHAPTER LXXIII 



FAILURE OF THE COMPROMISE OF 1850 



Fillmore's Administration, 1850-53 



Compromise opposed in the North. — For the most part the 
Southern people accepted the Compromise of 1850 in good 
faith. It was generally hoped that the country would ac- 
cept it as heartily as it had ac- 
cepted the Missouri Compromise 
in 1 820. ' ' Union meetings ' ' were 
held in both sections, and for a 
short time everybody except the 
Abolitionists seemed to forget 
past differences. 

In an effort to carry out the 
Compromise the Federal Govern- 
ment enacted a law that the 
United States marshals were to 
arrest all fugitive slaves and re- 
turn them to their owners. But 
the North was greatly incensed every time the law 
was put into practice. Time and again fugitive slaves 
were taken from the marshals by mob violence; and 
usually, whenever the men who interfered with the en- 
forcement of the law were tried, they were acquitted. 

" Personal liberty laws." — In addition to this a number 
of Northern States practically nullified the Fugitive Slave 
Act by the passage of ''personal liberty laws." These 
laws not only forbade State officials to assist in any way in 
the arrest of any fugitive, but punished private citizens 




Millard Fillmore 



FAILURE OF THE COMPROMISE OF 1850 313 

for doing so. Some States even declared that all slaves 
who entered their borders were free. The Abolitionists 
increased rapidly in the North, and they often afttacked 
Southern men who were trying to get possession of their 
slaves. 

"Underground Railroads." — In defiance of the laws 
made by Congress, the most active opponents of slavery 
banded themselves together to help runaway slaves in 
their efforts to get out of the country into Canada. The 
routes along which the slaves were carried were known as 
''Underground Railroads." There were stations along 
these routes from ten to twenty miles apart, where the 
slaves were hidden during the day to be sent after nightfall 
to the next station. It is estimated that between three 
and four thousand persons were engaged in this work, 
many of them going into the slave States to persuade the 
slaves to escape. 

As a result of this great opposition to the fugitive slave 
laws, very few slaves who succeeded in getting across the 
Ohio River were returned to their masters — probably not 
more than two hundred of them between 1850 and 1856. 
It is estimated that the South lost thirty thousand slaves 
as a result of Abolitionists' efforts after the beginning of 
the slavery agitation. ^ 

" Uncle Tom's Cabin." — Northern opposition to slavery 

* An Illinois Abolitionist helped thirty-one slaves to escape from the 
South in six weeks; another aided four hundred to escape. One Abolition- 
ist boasted that he had helped twenty-seven hundred. It often cost more 
money to reclaim a runaway slave than he was worth. We are told that 
the fugitive Burns was recovered at an expense to the Government and his 
owner of about $30,000. The recovery of a slave by the name of Sims 
cost his owner $3,000, to say nothing of the expenses of the Federal Govern- 
ment and of friends who aided in the recovery. 



314 OUR REPUBLIC 

was greatly increased by the publication (1852) of a novel 
entitled ''Uncle Tom's Cabin," which was written by Mrs. 
Harriet Beecher Stowe. It pictured possible abuses that 
might arise under the slavery system, but the incidents 
related were exceptional. Nevertheless, the book pro- 
duced a profound impression upon Northern people who 
were not acquainted with Southern conditions. Within a 
year three hundred thousand copies were sold throughout 
the North, and they made many thousands of Abolition- 
ists. The book was also read abroad, being translated 
into twenty languages. 

Presidential campaign of 1852. — After a spirited con- 
test the Democratic Party nominated Franklin Pierce of 
New Hampshire for the Presidency, passing by Cass, 
Douglas, and Buchanan, who were the most celebrated 
leaders in the party. After fifty-three ballots General 
Winfield Scott received the nomination of the Whig Party 
over Fillmore and Webster. The platforms of both parties 
declared their satisfaction with the Compromise of 1850. 

The Free-Soil Party nominated John P. Hale of New 
Hampshire. Its platform demanded that there should be 
"no more slave States, no slave territory, no nationalized 
slavery, and no national legislation for the extradition of 
slaves." 

Pierce received two hundred and fifty-four electoral 
votes, Scott only forty-two, while Hale failed to carry a 
single State. 



NEW TERRITORY FOR SLAVERY 



315 



CHAPTER LXXIV 

EFFORTS TO ACQUIRE NEW TERRITORY FOR SLAVERY 
Pierce's Administration, 1853-57 



Pierce's administration. — Although the beginning of 
Pierce's ^ administration was then spoken of as the "Second 
Era of Good Feehng, " sectional hatred soon broke out 
anew. The country could not 
forget the slavery issue. 

Foreign relations. — In 1853, 
James Gadsden of South. Caro- 
lina, representing the United 
States, purchased from Mexico 
(page 304) forty-seven thou- 
sand square miles of territory, 
which was needed for the route 
of the proposed Southern Pa- 
cific Railroad. The same year 
William W^alker attempted to 
seize Lower California, which 
belonged to Mexico. 

The year following (1854) some Southern leaders at- 
tempted to seize Cuba, which then belonged to Spain. In 
October the American ministers at the courts of Spain, 
England, and France met at Ostend, Belgium, and pre- 
pared a paper, called the "Ostend Manifesto." This 

1 Franklin Pierce was born at Hillsborough, New Hampshire, November 
23, 1804. He was successively member of Congress from New Hampshire 
and United States Senator. He served as a general in the McxicanWar. 
After his Presidential term, 1853-57, he was not conspicuous in politics. 
He died in 1869. 




Franklin Pierce 



316 OUR REPUBLIC 

" Manifesto " declared that Cuba should belong to the 
United States, and that, if Spain would not sell it for 
a fair price, the United States should consider the ad- 
visability of seizing the island. 

Walker and other American adventurers attempted to 
seize some of the Central American States. All these 
*' filibustering" expeditions, as they were called, were un- 
successful. 

In 1852 William A. Graham of North Carolina, Sec- 
retary of the Navy, planned a naval expedition to Japan. 
Under the command of Commodore M. C. Perry the visit 
was made and a treaty negotiated (1854), opening trade 
between the United States and Japan. This was the first 
step toward opening the ports of Japan to the world. 

Kansas-Nebraska Bill. — A clause in the Compromise of 
1850 permitted the Territories of New Mexico and Utah 
to decide for themselves whether or not they would have 
slavery. Many Democrats following the lead of Senator 
Stephen A. Douglas of Illinois, insisted that, if two Ter- 
ritories were permitted to settle this question for them- 
selves, the same privilege should be extended to all the 
other Territories. This ''Squatter-Sovereignty" idea, as 
it was called, seemed reasonable to slavery advocates, be- 
cause it gave the people of new States the same privileges 
in deciding the slavery question that had been exercised 
by their ancestors and friends in the older States. 

Senator Douglas presented a bill for the organization of 
the Territories of Kansas and Nebraska (January, 1854). 
Although slavery had been excluded from these Territories 
by the Missouri Compromise of 1820, Douglas contended 
that this prohibition was made "inoperative and void by 
the Compromise of 1850." The bill affirmed that it was 



NEW TERRITORY FOR SLAVERY 317 

the "true intent and meaning of this act neither to legis- 
late slavery into any Territory or State, nor to exclude it 
therefrom; but to leave the people thereof perfectly free 
to form and regulate their own domestic institutions in 
their own way, subject only to the Constitution of the 
United States." 

In the five months' debate which followed, Seward, 
Chase, and Sumner, leaders of the Free-Soil Party, at- 
tacked the bill, denounced the South, and charged the 
Democrats with a deliberate breach of faith. However, 
Douglas, popularly called the "Little Giant," met the 
attacks of the opposition and succeeded in putting his bill 
through Congress. 

The legislatures of ten Northern States protested 
against the bill. Douglas was denounced and burned in 
effigy, and thirty-seven out of the forty-four Northern 
Democrats who voted with him were defeated in the next 
election. From this time political parties became more 
sectional, and the advocates and the opponents of slavery 
more determined. 

Troubles in Kansas. — As soon as the Kansas-Nebraska 
Bill became a law, there was a mad rush for possession of 
Kansas. The slaveholders from Missouri, which ad- 
joined the new Territory, were first on the ground. But 
the people of New England organized a society which 
gave money and arms to all antislavery settlers who 
would go into Kansas. The people of Missouri then 
appealed to their neighbors in the Southern States 
to come to their aid. 

Before the end of a year the proslavery and the anti- 
slavery men had made separate settlements in different 
parts of the State. An election was then held (March, 



318 



OUR REPUBLIC 



1855) for a Legislature. The antislavery party met with 
an overwhehiiing defeat; but they charged their oppo- 
nents with bringing Missouriahs into the Territory, who 
remained there only long enough to vote and then returned 
home. "VVTien this Legislature met, it passed a law es- 
tablishing slavery and placing a death penalty on anyone 
giving aid to a fugitive slave. 




The Division of the Country in Regard to Slavery after the 
Passage of the Kansas-Nebraska Bill 



The antislavery party held another election, at w^hich 
delegates were chosen to a Constitutional Convention. 
This Convention met at Topeka and made an antislavery 
constitution. In this way two hostile governments arose 
in the Territory. 

A bloody civil war followed, which was characterized 
by robbery, murder, and other forms of violence. As a 
result the Territory was everywhere spoken of as ''Bleed- 



THE SLAVERY CONTROVERSY 319 

ing Kansas." The town of Lawrence, which was the 
center of the antislavery settlement, was partly burned 
(May, 1856) by Missourians, whom their enemies called 
''border ruffians." Three days later an antislavery band 
under John Brown massacred a settlement of slave 
owners at Pottawatomie. 

While these bloody events were taking place in Kansas, 
Senatol" Charles Sumner delivered in the United States 
Senate (May, 1856) a most terrible speech on "The 
Crime Against Kansas." In this speech he made an 
attack on Senator Butler of South Carolina. As a result 
Sumner was personally assaulted and beaten on the head 
with a cane by Preston S. Brooks, a nephew of Senator 
Butler, and was left unconscious on the floor of the 
Senate chamber. These events greatly inflamed the 
entire country. 

CHAPTER LXXV 

ACUTE STAGE OF THE SLAVERY CONTROVERSY 
Buchanan's Administration, 1857-61 

Party changes. — With the death (1852) of the great 
Whig leaders. Clay and Webster, their party went to 
pieces. It never rallied after its disastrous defeat in 
the Presidential campaign of 1852. 

About this time the American Party began to attract 
attention. As its members were bound by an oath to 
reveal nothing about its organization or plans, they 
always answered inquiries on these points by saying, "I 
do not know." Hence they were popularly called 
''Know-Nothings." Their principal object was to keep 
all foreigners out of public offices, as is indicated by their 



320 



OUR REPUBLIC 



motto, "America for Americans." They carried several 
States in the election of 1854; but after that date they 
rapidly declined in influence because they refused to take 
a stand on the slavery question. 

After the passage of the Kansas-Nebraska Bill, the 
dissatisfied elements in the other parties formed (July, 
1854) a new party which they called the Republican. 
It was made up of Northern Whigs, Free-Soilers, and 
Anti-Nebraska Democrats; and it gained strength rapidly. 
Presidential campaign of 1856. — The American, or 
Know-Nothing, Party nominated ex-President Fillmore; 

but in stating the principles for 
which it stood, it still evaded the 
slavery issue. The Democrats 
nominated James Buchanan ^ of 
Pennsylvania. They stated their 
approval of the Kansas-Nebras- 
ka Bill and indorsed the principle 
of popular sovereignty. The Re- 
publicans nominated John C. 
Fremont of California, and de- 
manded that slavery be excluded 
from the Territories and that 
Kansas be admitted without 
slavery. 

This was the most exciting 
Presidential campaign since 1840. The election showed 
that the great national parties had become sectional — 




James Buchanan 



'James Buchanan was born in Franklin County, Pennsylvania, in 1791. 
He was in turn member of Congress, Minister to Russia, United States Sen- 
ator, Secretary of State, 1845-49, Minister to Great Britain, and President. 
In 1S66 he published a history of his administration. He died in 1868. 



THE SLAVERY CONTROVERSY 321 

that the North and the West were combining against the 
South. The Republicans carried every Northern State 
except five, and the Democrats every slave State except 
Maryland, which cast its vote for the Know-Nothing can- 
didate. Buchanan received one hundred and seventy- 
four electoral votes; Fremont, one hundred and fourteen; 
and Fillmore, eight. 

The Dred Scott decision. — A slave named Dred Scott 
was taken by his owner from Missouri to the free State 
of Illinois, where he lived two years. He was then carried 
into Minnesota Territory, where slavery was forbidden 
by the Missouri Compromise. Two years later his master 
brought him back to JMissouri. Dred Scott then brought 
suit for his freedom because of his residence in the free 
State of Illinois and in the Territory of Minnesota. The 
case was finally carried ta the Supreme Court which 
decided: (1) that a slave was not a citizen of the United 
States, and could not therefore sue for his freedom; (2) 
that Congress had no right to keep slavery out of the Terri- 
tories and that, therefore, the Missouri Compromise was 
unconstitutional, null, and void; (3) that slaveholders 
going from one part of the country to another could take 
their slaves with them just as they could other property. 

This decision met with the hearty approval of the 
Southern Democrats. 

The Lincoln-Douglas debates. — In 1858 Stephen A. 
Douglas was a candidate for reelection to the United 
States Senate, from Illinois. The Repubhcans brought 
forward Abraham Lincoln as a rival candidate. The 
two candidates debated national questions throughout 
the State. Douglas won the election, but the campaign 
gave Lincoln a national reputation and made him the 



322 OUR REPUBLIC 

Presidential nominee of his party two years later. It also 
helped to divide the Democratic Party and bring about its 
defeat in the next Presidential election. 

John Brown's raid. — John Brown, the fanatical Aboli- 
tionist whose bloody deeds had already attracted atten- 
tion in Kansas (page 319), attempted to incite a slave 
insurrection in Virginia (October, 1859). With twenty- 
two followers he attacked the United States arsenal at 
Harper's Ferry, Virginia, with the purpose of seizing 
weapons with which to arm the slaves that he expected 
would join him. But the slaves did not flock to his 
standard as he had anticipated; and he was captured by 
a military force under the command of Colonel Robert 
E. Lee, an officer in the Federal army. Brown was 
speedily tried, convicted of treason, and executed. 

A majority of the Northern people disapproved of 
Brown's action. Many, however, regarded him as a 
martyr for the cause of freedom. On the day of his exe- 
cution they expressed their sympathy by tolhng church 
bells, lowering flags to half mast, and draping public 
buildings. The Massachusetts Senate lacked only three 
votes of adjourning on that day, out of respect to John 
Brown; and in many Northern cities memorial meetings 
were held "at which eulogies were pronounced, glorifying 
Brown's deeds and comparing him to Christ, the Christian 
martyrs, and the apostles." 

Mr. Douglas charged the crimes committed by Brown 
and his followers to "the matured, logical, and inevitable 
result of the doctrines and teachings of the Republican 
Party, explained and enforced in their platform, their 
partisan presses, their pamphlets and books, and es- 
pecially their leaders in and out of Congress." Jefferson 



PROGRESS OF THE COUNTRY, 1840-60 323 

Davis spoke of Brown and his raid as "the invasion of 
a State by a murderous gang of Abohtionists, whose pur- 
pose was to incite slaves to murder helpless women and 
children, and for which he met and deserved a felon's 
death." 

From these facts it will be seen that the two sections 
had drifted so far apart that there was little hope of a 
peaceful reconciliation. 

Minor incidents. — Minnesota became a State in the 
Union in 1858. In the following year Oregon was ad- 
mitted, being the thirty-third State. Both of these 
States came into the Union with constitutions prohibiting 
slavery. Attempts were also made about this time to 
admit Kansas, but the unsettled condition of the Territory 
in its struggle over the slavery question delayed its ad- 
mission until 1861. 

CHAPTER LXXVI 

PROGRESS OF THE COUNTRY, 1840-60 

Area and population. — Between 1840 and 1860 the 
country had acquired Texas, the Oregon Country, and 
two cessions from Mexico, which increased its area 
from about two millions to over three millions of square 
miles. In the same time the population had increased 
from about seventeen millions to nearly thirty-one and 
a half millions; and seven new States had been formed, 
making in all thirty-three States in the Union. The 
eighteen free States had a population of more than 
nineteen millions, and the fifteen slave States of a little 
over twelve millions. As there were nearly four million 
slaves in the South, the white population of that section 



324 OUR REPUBLIC 

was about eight millions, or less than half that of the 
North. 

Large cities had grown up, principally in the North, 
which had seven out of the ten largest cities in the country. 
Beginning about 1847, foreign immigration rapidly in- 
creased because of a great famine in Ireland and politi- 
cal disturbances throughout Europe. These immigrants 
crowded into the Northern cities or settled in the rich 
agricultural region of the Northwest. In 1840 there were 
in the United States only forty-five cities of eight thousand 
or more inhabitants; twenty years later there were one 
hundred and forty-one. In the same period the per- 
centage of city population throughout the country had 
nearly doubled.^ 

Development of water transportation. — Between 1851 
and 1860 twenty-five hundred vessels were built in the 
United States. In 1853 the New York Herald declared 
that in "both sailing and steam vessels we have surpassed 
the whole world," and a year later President Buchanan 
boasted that ''our merchant marine is the largest in the 
world." At the outbreak of the War of Secession no 
less than fifteen hundred steamships and thousands of 
sailing vessels were carrying the American flag. The 
loss of eight hundred lives by steamboat accidents in 
the year 1851 caused Congress to provide for the in- 
spection of steamboats by Government officials. 

Keen rivalry developed between the Cunard line of 
ocean steamships founded by English capitalists (1839) 
and the Collins line founded by Americans (1850). 

1 New York City had only about two hundred thousand inhabitants in 
1830 and nearly eight hundred and six thousand in 1860. Chicago had thirty- 
three voters in 1833 and over one hundred thousand inhabitants in 1860. 



PROGRESS OF THE COUNTRY, 1840-60 325 

This competition not only increased the comforts, but 
reduced the cost of ocean travel. 

Railway transportation. — The railroad mileage of the 
country doubled every five years from 1840 to 1860, and 
between 1850 and 1860 it increased fivefold — from six 
thousand to thirty thousand miles. Sleeping cars were 
introduced in 1858. In 1852 trunk-line connection was 
estabhshed between Chicago and the Eastern cities, and 




River Boats at Louisville, Kkm , 1,1, .. 
From a lithograph of that time. 



T 1845 



five years later St. Louis had railroad connections with 
Chicago and Baltimore. Plans were being perfected 
for connecting the Atlantic and Pacific coasts by means of 
transcontinental lines of railroads. Bridges were built 
across the Mississippi River at Minneapolis (1855) and 
Rock Island (1856) and across the Niagara River (1855). 
These great developments in railroad building cheapened 
the cost of transportation between the Mississippi valley 
and the rapidly growing cities of the North and the East. 
The freight rates on flour from Chicago to New York had 



326 OUR REPUBLIC 

fallen from about fifty cents a barrel in 1817 to about ten 
cents in 1860. The rates on cotton from the South to 
the North had also decreased in the same proportion. 

Street railways were built before 1860, the first in New 
England being that between Boston and Cambridge 
(1856). The cars were drawn by horses or mules. 

Telegraphic communication. — By the year 1854 about 
forty telegraph companies had been organized with a 
combined capital of seven million dollars. Two years 
later they were bought up, and the great Western Union 
Telegraph Company was organized. In October, 1861, a 
telegraph line was completed across' the American con- 
tinent, uniting the California coast with the Atlantic. 
There were then no less than fifty thousand miles of tele- 
graph wires in the United States. 

Just at the close of this period Cyrus W. Field's long- 
cherished scheme of sending telegraph messages under the 
water from America to Europe was realized. This idea 
originated with the great scientist. Commodore M. F. 
IMaury of Virginia. At a banquet given in celebration of 
the success of this great undertaking, Field said that Com- 
modore Maury had furnished the brains, England the 
money, and he had done the work. After two expensive 
though unsuccessful attempts. Field finally succeeded 
(1858) in laying a telegraphic cable from Newfoundland 
to Ireland, a distance of seventeen hundred miles. The 
first message sent over the line was from Queen Victoria 
to President Buchanan, and read, ''Glory to God in the 
highest, peace on earth and good will to men." Un- 
fortunately the cable parted three weeks later, after four 
hundred messages had been sent. It was eight years be- 
fore another cable was laid (1866). 



PROGRESS OF THE COUNTRY, 1840-60 327 

Mail facilities. — The mail facilities were greatly im- 
proved by the introduction of steamships and railroads, 
and m 1860 stagecoaches and post riders carried the mails 
only to out-of-the-way places. Postage stamps were in- 
troduced by the Government in 1847, and in the period 
from 1840 to 1860 the number of post offices had more than 
doubled. In 1845 the postage on letters was reduced to 
five cents for every half ounce for a distance of three hun- 
dred miles or less, and ten cents for a greater distance. In 
1851 it was further reduced to three cents for a distance of 
three thousand miles or less, and six cents for a greater 
distance. We are told that when the first reduction was 
made, some one prophesied that ''before long all the serv- 
ant girls would be writing letters." In 1861 the rate on 
letters to France was fifteen cents for each quarter ounce. 
The "pony express" was used for carrying mails across 
the Western plains by means of relays at regular intervals, 
which afforded fresh horses and riders between St. Joseph 
in Missouri and San Francisco in California. 

Progress of discoveries and inventions. — 'In 1841 a 
steam fire engine was first used in New York, but the in- 
vention was not perfected until 1853. Charles Goodyear 
of Connecticut, discovered (1844) the process of vulcaniz- 
ing India rubber, which not only keeps it from melting by 
heat, but renders it useful in the manufacturing of water- 
proof goods and other valuable articles. In 1842 ether was 
first used as an anaesthetic by Dr. Crawford W. Long of 
Georgia. It has been an inestimable blessing in surgery; 
for it makes the patient insensible to pain while under- 
going an operation. Chloroform was later (1847) used for 
the same purpose. In 1859 petroleum was discovered in 
western Pennsylvania. This led to the widespread use of 



328 



OUR REPUBLIC 




The Steam Fire Engine Invented by 
Captain Ericsson 



coal oil for lighting purposes. One of the most useful in- 
ventions was the sewing machine, patented by Elias 
Howe of Massachusetts, in 1846. It not only cheapened 

the cost of clothing 
and shoes, but less- 
ened the drudgery 
of the domestic life 
of women through- 
ou t the world. 
Electric fire alarms 
were successfully 
used as early as 
1852. About the 
same time the 
breech-loading rifle 
was invented. The cost of printing was greatly reduced 
with the invention by Richard M. Hoe (1847) of the re- 
volving cylinder press. The Bessemer process of manufac- 
turing steel was first used in New Jersey in 1856. In the 
following year watches were first made by machinery. The 
largest number of patents issued in any one year before 
1849 was six hundred and sixty; but from that time until 
1860 there was an average of about two thousand patents 
a year. 

Telescopes began to be manufactured in the United 
States about 1850, and in a few years the Americans were 
making the best telescopes in the world. An American 
also invented (1853) an apparatus for photographing stars 
and planets. In this period M. F. Maury founded the new 
and important science of Physical Geography, which deals 
with land and water formation, winds, and ocean currents. 
Our first World's Fair was held in the Crystal Palace, 



PROGRESS OF THE COUNTRY, 1840-60 329 

New York, in 1853, two years after the London Fair, 
which was the first international exposition in the world. 
The Crystal Palace Exposition revealed the wonderful 
progress of the United States in science and inventions, 
and gave many new ideas to American inventors. 

Progress of manufacturing. — There were in 1860 five 
times as many spindles in the cotton mills of the country 
as there had been in 1831. In the ten years from 1850 to 
1860 the manufacture of woolen goods increased fifty per 
cent. In the same period the amount of money invested 
in manufacturing had increased nearly fourfold, and the 
number of persons employed had more than doubled. 
New England led in the manufacture of cotton goods, 
having in 1860 about four times as many spindles in opera- 
tion as there were in the Southern States. As a conse- 
quence the protective tariff was favored by the North and 
opposed by the South (page 257). 

Progress in literature. — This period has been called 
the '^ golden age" of American literature. Most of the 
great American authors who had received world-wide 
recognition in the preceding period (page 293) still con- 
tinued to write. Among the later authors were William 
Gilmore Simms, Francis Parkman, and George William 
Curtis. 



VII.— WAR OF SECESSION 
CHAPTER LXXVII 

THE ELECTION OF 1S60 

Dissensions among Democrats. — In the National Demo- 
cratic Convention, which met at Charleston, South Caro- 
lina, in 1860, most of the Northern members stood by 
Douglas and his theory of " Squatter Sovereignty." 
They felt that no other candidate and no other principle 
could carry the North for the party. The Southern 
members opposed the nomination of Douglas. They 
declared that neither Congress nor a Territorial legis- 
lature had authority to exclude slavery from the Terri- 
tories. Upon the adoption of the Douglas platform — that 
is, the party principles that he upheld — the delegates from 
six of the Southern States withdrew. As the remaining 
delegates were unable to agree upon a nomination, they 
adjourned ten days later to meet again in Baltimore. 

The Baltimore Convention nominated Stephen A. 
Douglas of Illinois, for President. The remaining 
Southern delegates, after much wrangling, finally 
nominated John C. Breckenridge of Kentucky. Thus 
was the Democratic Party hopelessly divided, and its 
defeat made inevitable at the time of a great national 
crisis ! 

Unity in Republican ranks. — The Republican Conven- 
tion met in Chicago, and on the third ballot nominated 

330 



THE ELECTION OF 1860 



331 



Abraham Lincoln of Illinois, for President. It adopted 
a platform which declared that the Dred Scott decision 
was wrong and that it was the right and the duty of 
Congress to prohiJDit slavery in the Territories, though it 
had no right to interfere with slavery in the States. It 







NEW 



Xumbers ht.dkate electoral 
Abraham Lincoln 
John BM 
J. C. Brnkmridj^ 
S.A.Dmiolis 




The Electoral Vote of 1860 

also denounced the John Brown raid into Virginia as 
a grave crime. 

Effort to revive old parties. — Some Northern Whigs 
and Southern Know-Nothings united to form the Con- 
stitutional Union Party. At a convention which met 
in Baltimore, this party nominated John Bell of Tennes- 
see, and declared for 'Hhe constitution of the country, 
the union of the States, and the enforcement of the 
laws" — a platform so vague that it pledged the party to 
no definite action. Still many Southern people who did 
not favor a secession movement voted for Bell. 



332 OUR REPUBLIC 

Campaign and Election. — The campaign of 1860, with 
its great mass meetings, fence rails, i and torchlight pro- 
cessions, was one of the most exciting in the history of the 
country. Lincoln stayed at his home in Springfield, 
Illinois, and received delegations; but both the Demo- 
cratic candidates spoke in all parts of the country. When 
Douglas saw that the Northern States were lost to the 
Democratic Party, he devoted his attention to the South. 
In Norfolk, Virginia, he was asked whether he favored 
maintaining the Union by force. When he said that he 
did, the South was still more firmly opposed to him. 
The political leaders of the South had already de- 
clared that, in the event of a Kepublican victory, the 
^' honor and safety" of the Southern States would re- 
quire their withdrawal from the Union. 

The election was an overwhelming victory for the 
Kepublican Party. It carried every Northern State 
except New Jersey, and in that State received four out 
of the seven electoral votes. Lincoln received two thirds 
of the entire electoral vote, though he had scarcely one 
third of the popular votes of the country. 

' At the Republican Convention in Illinois a week before their national 
convention, two fence rails were displayed with a banner which said that 
these rails were "part of 3,000 cut in 1830, ten miles south of Decatur, by- 
Abe Lincoln and John Hanks." The people went wild with enthusiasm 
and shouted themselves hoa'-se for Lincoln the "rail-splitter"; and after 
he had made a speech, the convention named him as its choice for the next 
President of the United States. When asked about the rails, Lincoln 
said that he had split about 3,000 rails, but that he could not say whether 
the specimens displayed were among them. He then added, to the great 
amusement of the convention, "One thing I ivill say — I've made a good 
many better-looking rails than either of these." 



THE BEGINNINGS OF SECESSION 



333 



CHAPTER LXXVIII 



CHARLESTON 

MERCURY 



EXTRA: 



AK ORDUVA^CB 



THE BEGINNINGS OF SECESSION 

Withdrawals from the Union. — As soon as it was known 
that Lincoln had been elected, the Legislature of South 
Carolina passed a unanimous vote calling for a conven- 
tion to determine what to do. After a short debate this 
convention unanimously voted 
(December 20, 1860) to repeal 
the ordinance by which, in 1788, 
South Carolina had adopted the 
Federal Constitution and there- 
by entered the Union. This 
action was approved throughout 
the State by the waving of pal- 
metto flags, the singing of mar- 
tial songs, the booming of can- 
non, and the pealing of bells. 

Mississippi then adopted an 
Ordinance of Secession (January 
9, 1861) and unfurled a State 
flag, which the members saluted 
as the first flag of the young 
republic. This incident gave 
rise to the popular war song, 
''The Bonnie Blue Flag that 
Bears a Single Star." Similar 

ordinances were adopted in Florida (January 10th), Ala- 
bama (January 11th), Georgia (January 19th), Louisiana 
(January 26th), and Texas (February 1st). 






UNION 

DISSOLVEB! 

A Charleston " Extra " An- 
nouncing THE Secession 



334 OUR REPUBLIC 

The home coming. — Most of the Southern men in the 
service of the United States resigned and returned home 
when their States seceded. These men felt that their first 
duty was to their State. The parting addresses of senators 
and representatives retiring from Congress were solemn 
and impressive. The address of Jefferson Davis was es- 
pecially noteworthy. After calmly defending the course 
taken by his State, he added: 

" Then, Senators, we recur to the compact which binds us 
together; we recur to the principles upon which our Govern- 
ment was founded; and when you deny them, and when you 
deny to us the right to withdraw from a Government which, 
thus perverted, threatens to be destructive of our rights, we 
but tread in the path of our fathers when we proclaim our 
independence and take the hazard. This is done, not in 
hostility to others, not to injure any section of the country, 
not even for our own pecuniary benefit, but from the high 
and solemn motive of defending and protecting the rights 
we inherited, and which it is our sacred duty to transmit un- 
shorn to our children." 

Two hundred and forty-five officers in the Army of the 
United States resigned, the most conspicuous of whom 
was Robert E. Lee.^ In the United States Navy, among 
the officers to resign was Raphael Semmes. 

' In January, 1861 , General Lee wrote: "If the Union is dissolved and the 
Government disrupted, I shall return to my native State and share the 
miseries of my people, and, save in defense, will draw my sword on none." 



GROUNDS FOR SECESSION 



335 



CHAPTER LXXIX 



GROUNDS FOR SECESSION 

Right of secession. — The South beheved that the States 
were older than the Union and that when they emerged 
from the Revolution they were separate sovereignties. 
After mentioning each State in the treaty acknowl- 
edging the inde- 
pendence of the 
United States, the 
King of England 
had declared 
them "free, sov- 
ereign, and inde- 
pendent States." 
When the Con- 
stitution of 1787 
was made, each 
State was left free 
to adopt it and 
enter the Union, 
or to remain a 
separate nation. 
If the Constitu- 
tion had forbidden the withdrawal of a State from the 
Union, it would never have been adopted. Moreover, the 
right to withdraw from the Union at pleasure had been ex- 
pressly stated in the resolutions by which three States 
— Virginia, New York, and Rhode Island — adopted the 
Constitution. 




Scene Outside the Capitol at Montgomery, 
Alabama, after Secession Was Announced 



336 OUR REPUBLIC 

When the North believed in secession. — The right of 
secession had been repeatedly asserted by the North. 
When the admission of Louisiana was under discussion in 
1811, Josiah Quincy had said: 

" If this hill passes, it is my deliberate judgment that it is 
virtually a dissolution of the Union; that it will free the States 
from their moral obligations; and, as it will be the right of all, 
so it will be the duty of some, definitely to prepare for a separa- 
tion—amicably if they can, violently if they must." 

During the Warof 1812, and particularly at the Hartford 
Convention, the New England States had threatened to 
secede (page 256). Upon the annexation of Texas the 
Legislature of Massachusetts had declared that such a 
step might "drive these States into a dissolution of the 
Union"; and John Quincy Adams had declared in Con- 
gress that New England ought to secede. At the time of 
the War with Mexico, William Lloyd Garrison of Massa- 
chusetts had proposed, amid great applause, that his 
State should lead in a secession movement.^ 

Opposition to secession. — On the other hand the Union 
people, North and South, argued that the Constitution 

* Horace Greeley had said in the New York Tribune of November 9, 
1860: "If the Cotton States shall decide that they can do better out of 
the Union than in it, we insist on letting them go in peace. The right to 
secede may be a revolutionarj' one, but it exists nevertheless." 

Edward Everett had said in a Union meeting in Boston, February 2, 
1861: "To expect to hold fifteen States in the Union by force is preposter- 
ous. If our sister States must leave us, in the name of Heaven let them 
go in peace." 

Wendell Phillips had said in a meeting at New Bedford, Massachusetts, 
April 9, 1861: "A large body of people, sufficient to make a nation, have 
come to the conclusion that they will have a government of a certain form. 
Who denies them the right? Standing with the principles of '76 behind 
us, who can deny them the right?" 



GROUNDS FOR SECESSION 337 

of the United States had been adopted in order to form a 
stronger government and to take away the powers claimed 
by some of the States. They cited the decisions of John 
Marshall, in which he had repeatedly asserted that the 
Union was indissoluble and that the Constitution and the 
acts of Congress were the supreme law of the land. As a 
majority of the Northern States had passed through the 
Territorial stage in which they were under the control 
of Congress, they looked upon the Union as supreme. 
They therefore took the stand that it mattered not what 
might have been the ideas of the founders of the Govern- 
ment, it was wrong for a great nation to be broken to 
pieces. 

Causes of secession. — By taking advantage of protect- 
ive tariffs and ship subsidies the North had developed 
great manufacturing and commercial enterprises, and 
these had increased its population and wealth. Northern 
influence had grown rapidly in Congress, and by this 
means large appropriations had been made for internal 
improvements throughout that section and the West. 
As the South still relied principally on agriculture, it was 
greatly injured by Federal taxes on importations and 
profited only indirectly by the development of the North 
and the West. 

At least twelve Northern State legislatures had vio- 
lated the Constitution by passing personal liberty laws or 
otherwise nullifying the fugitive slave acts ^ of Congress. 
Northern leaders had expressed a determination to ex- 

' In his celebrated speech at Capon Springs, Virginia (1851), Daniel 
Webster had said: "If the Northern States refuse willfully and deliberately 
to carry into effect that part of the Constitution which respects the res- 
toration of fugitive slaves, and Congress provide no remedy, the South 



338 OUR REPUBLIC 

elude slavery from the Territories in spite of a decision of 
the Supreme Court. These were among the things that 
caused the South to feel that it would be impossible for 
the two sections to live together in peace. One by one 
the strong ties that had held the country together were 
severed, and the Union fell apart. 

CHAPTER LXXX 

THE FORMATION OF THE CONFEDERACY 

The Southern States unite. — At the suggestion of the 
South Carolina Convention, dele- 
gates from all the seceding States 
except Texas ^ met in Mont- 
gomery, Alabama, February 4, 
1861, and drew up a Provisional 
Constitution, adopting the ''Stars 
and Bars" as the flag of the new 
nation, which they named "The 

^ „ ^ Confederate States of America." 

The Seal and I lags of 

THE Confederacy They elected Jefierson Davis 2 

would no longer be bound to observe the compact. A bargain broken on 
one side is broken on all sides." 

Caleb Cushing, of Massachusetts, had said to his fellow-citizens in 1860: 
"So long as the State of Massachusetts perseveres in this nullification of 
the Constitution, she affords, not a pretext only, but a justificatory cause 
to the State of South Carolina, to that of Georgia, Alabama, Mississippi, 
or any other State otherwise disposed to secede; for the violation of the 
fundamental compact of association by one of the contracting parties 
serves, in morality as well as law, to release the others." x 

' As this State had seceded only three days before the convention met, 
its delegates did not reach Montgomery in time. 

2 Jefferson Davis was born in Kentucky, June 3, 1808, and, when a 
child, came to Mississippi with his parents. He was graduated from West 
Point Military Academy at the age of twenty. He spent seven years iu 





Jefferson Davis 

From a negative made during the War of Secession 

In the possession of H. P. Cook, Richmond, Virginia 



340 OUR REPUBLIC 

2. Members of the Cabinet ^ might be admitted to 
seats in Congress with the privilege of engaging in de- 
bate. 

3. Congress was expressly forbidden to lay protective 
tariffs or give bounties. 

4. The foreign slave trade was prohibited. 
Buchanan's recommendation. — After the election of 

Lincoln, President Buchanan realized that a great crisis 
confronted the country, but he seemed at a loss to know 
what to do. He claimed that no State had a right to 
secede, yet he said that Congress had no constitutional 
power to force a seceding State back. He recommended 
the adoption of an ^'explanatory amendment" to the 
Constitution, making it the duty of the United States to 
protect slavery in the Territories and providing more 
effectively for the return of slaves escaping into the free 
States. 

The Crittenden Compromise. — Congress promptly con- 
sidered these recommendations, and several compromise 
measures were proposed. The most noteworthy was 
brought forward by John J. Crittenden of Kentucky, the 
successor of Henry Clay in the Senate. The Crittenden 
Compromise proposed: 

in the practice of law he entered public life, serving as a member of the 
Lower House of Congress from 1843 until 1859. He was elected to the 
United States Senate after the war, but was not permitted to take his 
seat. He again served in the Lower House of Congress from 1873 to 1883. 
1 Two of the most celebrated members of the Confederate Cabinet 
were Robert Toombs of Georgia, Secretary of State, and Judah P. Ben- 
jamin of Louisiana, Attorney-General. The latter was often referred to 
as "the brain of the Confederacy." After the war Mr. Benjamin settled 
in England, where he gained great reputation as a lawyer. John H. 
Reagan of Texas, the Postmaster-General of the Confederacy, was also a 
man of ability and integrity. 



THE FORMATION OF THE CONFEDERACY 341 

1. That the JMissouri Compromise hne, 36° 30' (page 
261), be extended to the Pacific; that slavery be pro- 
hibited in all territory north of that line, and that neither 
Congress nor any territorial legislature be permitted to 
interfere in any way with slavery south of it. 

2. That when new States south of the Compromise line 
were admitted into the Union, they might decide for 
themselves whether they would be free or slave. 

3. That a Constitutional amendment should be adopted 
prohibiting Congress from abolishing or interfering with 
slavery in any State. 

4. That the Northern States be requested to repeal 
their personal liberty laws. 

This Compromise was defeated by the opposition of the 
Northern Senators. 

The Peace Conference. — Although twenty or more 
Southern Senators and representatives in Washington 
had advised their States to secede, Virginia made a final 
effort to save the Union that she had taken the lead in 
forming.^ In response to a call from her Legislature, 
delegates from thirteen free and seven slave States met 
at the National capital on the day the Confederacy was 
organized at Montgomery. But none of the seceded 
States were represented at this meeting. After a session 
of more than three weeks, the convention agreed upon a 
plan of conciliation, but it was rejected by Congress. 

' Robert E. Lee said: "I can anticipate no greater calamity than a dis- 
solution of the Union. ... I am willing to sacrifice everything, but 
honor, for its preservation." 



342 



OUR REPUBLIC 



CHAPTER LXXXI 

THE SOUTH TRIES TO PREVENT WAR 

"Star of the West." — After South Carolina seceded, 
she sent commissioners to Washington to arrange for the 
peaceful delivery to the State of the Federal forts and 
other property within her limits. While President 
Buchanan hesitated about withdrawing the troops from 
Charleston harbor, a Northern merchant vessel, the 




Fort Sumter before the War 

Star of the West, was sent with two hundred and fifty 
men, arms, ammunition, and other supplies for Fort 
Sumter. The vessel was fired upon by State mihtia and 
forced to retire. Although no effort was then made to 
seize the fort, the President was warned that an attempt 
to reenforce it would be regarded as an act of war. 

Federal property. — As the States withdrew from the 
Union, they took possession of arsenals, forts, post 



THE SOUTH TRIES TO PREVENT WAR 343 

offices, and other public buildings in their borders, which 
had belonged to the United States. The seceding States 
felt that their safety demanded such a step, and they 
offered to pay the difference if it was found that they had 
(within their limits) more than their share of public 
property. In this way twenty-one forts on the Atlantic 
and Gulf coasts changed hands, as did also several arsenals 
with their equipments. But most of the muskets thus 
acquired had already been "condemned as well-nigh 
worthless." 

This property was given over to the Confederacy when 
the State in which it was situated joined the new nation. 
When the Confederacy was formed, the only fortified 
places in its limits still held by the Federal Government 
were Fort Sumter at Charleston, Fort Pickens at Pensa- 
cola, and Key West in Florida. Confederate Com- 
missioners were sent to Washington to request that the 
United States give up these forts also. 

Inauguration of Lincoln. — As President Lincoln^ had 
remained quietly at home after his election, the public 
did not know what to expect when he should take the 



' Abraham Lincoln was born in Kentucky eight months after the birth 
of Jefferson Davis. His parents moved to Indiana when he was only- 
seven years of age. They were very poor and unable to give their children 
school advantages. Young Abraham went to school not more than a year 
in all. But he borrowed books and read them carefully to improve hi3 
mind and to prepare for life's duties. At the age of twenty-one he moved 
to Illinois. While clerking in a store, he won the title of "Honest Abe" 
by walking six miles at night to give a woman six cents which she had 
overpaid him. He read law, was elected to the State Legislature, and then 
to Congress. In 1858 he was defeated for the United States Senate by 
Stephen A. Douglas, but his speeches in the campaign attracted national 
attention and led to his nomination and election to the Presidency. 



344 OUR REPUBLIC 

oath of office. He entered Washington in disguise for 
his inauguration, which was marked by the assembhng 
of the largest mihtary force ever brought to that city. 

In his inaugural address, which was delivered behind 
a row of bayonets, he said that he did not intend to inter- 
fere with slavery in the States; but that, acting on the 
assumption that the Union was unbroken, he would exe- 
cute the laws of the Union in all the States as far as pos- 
sible. He said that he would hold all property of the 
United States and would collect customs duties through- 
out the country. In defense of this policy he claimed 
that the Union was perpetual and that no State had a 
right to withdraw from it. In conclusion he said: 

" In your hands, my dissatisfied fellow-countrymen, and not 
in mine, is the momentous issue of civil war. The Government 
will not assail you. You can have no conflict without being 
yourselves the aggressors. I am loath to close. We are not 
enemies, but friends. We must not be enemies. Though 
passion may have strained, it must not break our bond of 
affection." 

Efforts to prevent war. — Several slave States that had 
not entered the Confederacy were strong in their attach- 
ment to the Union. Commodore Maury wrote on the 
day of Lincoln's inauguration: 

"Virginia is not at all ready to go out of the Union ; and she is not 
going out for anything that is likely to occur, short of coercion." 

Mr. Baldwin, a leading Union man in Virginia, said to 
Lincoln while urging him not to attempt to force the 
seceded States back into the Union: 

" Only give this assurance to the country in a proclamation of 
five lines, and we pledge ourselves that Virginia will stand by 
you as though you were our own Washington." 




Abraham Lincoln 



THE BEGINNING OF THE CONFLICT 



345 



CHAPTER LXXXII 



THE BEGINNING OF THE CONFLICT 



Fort Sumter reenforced. — The Confederate commissioners 
who were sent to Washington (page 342) were not officially 
received; but through private 
conferences they were led 
to believe that the Federal 
troops would be peacefully 
withdrawn from Fort Sumter. 
However, instead of surren- 
dering the fort, Lincoln de- 
termined to reenforce it, and 
sent word to that effect to 
Governor Pickens of South 
Carolina. About the same 
time a squadron of eleven 
ships carrying two hundred 
and eighty-five guns and two 
thousand four hundred men, 
was sent from New York 

and Norfolk with orders to "reenforce Fort Sumter peace- 
ably, if permitted, but forcibly, if they resist." 

Capture of Fort Sumter. — As the possession of this fort 
by a foreign power was dangerous to the Confederacy, 
President Davis demanded its surrender. Major Ander- 
son, the Federal commander, refused to surrender; so, by 
order of General P. G. T. Beauregard, nineteen batteries 
opened fire on the fort, April 12, 1861, at four o'clock in the 
morning. By noon of the next day the fire had burned the 
fort until the men, one hundred and twenty-eight in nimi- 




The Harbor of Charleston 
IN 1861 



346 



OUR REPUBLIC 



ber, were almost suffocated by the smoke and were in 
danger of being blown up by an explosion of the magazine. 
As the flagstaff in the fort had been cut away and the 
flag had disappeared, General Beauregard stopped the 
bombardment to send messengers to find out if the gar- 
rison was in distress. It finally surrendered, and the 
Stars and Bars displaced the Stars and Stripes on the fort. 




Interior of Fort Moultrie 
One of the batteries that fired on Fort Sumter. 

Strange to say, there were no losses on either side in this 
battle, which was the opening incident of the most bloody 
war in American history. ^ 



1 In his official report of the battle Major Anderson writes as follows: 
"Having defended the fort for thirty-four hours, until the quarters were 
entirely burned, the main gates destroyed by fire, the magazine surrounded 
by flames, ammunition gone, and no provision remaining but pork, I 
accepted the terms offered by General Beauregard and marched out of 



THE BEGINNING OF THE CONFLICT 347 

Lincoln's call for volunteers. — President Lincoln then 
issued a proclamation calling for seventy-five thousand 
volunteers for three months to suppress the ''rebellion," 
as he called it. Union meetings were held throughout 
the North. Within a few days ninety thousand volun- 
teers had been accepted by the War Department; and 
in about ten weeks, more than three hundred thousand 
men in the North were under arms. 

Effect of Lincoln's proclamation in the South. — The 
South was as eager for the struggle as was the North, 
and volunteers flocked to the standard of General 
Beauregard. The question now was: "What will Mary- 
iland, Virginia, North Carolina, Kentucky, Tennessee, 
Missouri, and Arkansas do?" There was still one other 
slave State, Delaware; but her people merely tolerated 
slavery and were strongly attached to the Union. Vir- 
ginia was at first opposed to secession ; but when it came 
to having Northern armies pass over her soil and 
when she was required to furnish troops to fight her 
Southern brethren she decided to secede.^ Her example 
was promptly followed by Arkansas, North Carolina,^ 
and Tennessee. 

the fort on Sunday afternoon the 14th, with colors flying, drums beating, 
and saluting my flag with fifty guns." 

' After Lincoln's proclamation Mr. Baldwin, a former Union man in 
Virginia, wrote: "We have no Union men in Virginia now. But those 
who were Union men will stand to their guns and make a fight that will 
shine out on the page of history as an example of what a brave people can 
do after exhausting every means of pacification." 

- The Governor of North CaroUna replied to Lincoln's requisition for 
troops as follows: "You will get no troops from North Carolina for the 
purpose of subjugating the States of the South. I can be no party to this 
wicked violation of the laws of the country and to this war upon the 
liberties of a free people." The Governor of Tennessee replied that his State 



348 OUR REPUBLIC 

Union sentiment and Union forces, however, took posses- 
sion of Kentucky, Maryland, and Missouri before the seced- 
ing element could organize. Thus were the border States 
saved for the Union, though many a man from these 
States volunteered for service in the Confederate army. 

CHAPTER LXXXIII 

THE STRENGTH OF THE TWO NATIONS 

Population. — The population of the eleven seceding 
States was about nine millions, of whom five millions were 
white. The population of the twenty-two States that 
remained in the Union was twenty-two millions, and these 
States had four times as many men for military service as 
could be found in the South. There was hardly a time 
when the Confederate enlistments were more than half 
those of the United States. Furthermore, the South was 
greatly weakened by the constant fear of a slave insur- 
rection. As the population of the South was so small 
compared with that of the North, it had to put forth its 
full strength early in the struggle. In the North industries 
continued to develop and population to increase because 
of foreign immigration.^ 

would not "furnish a man for the purpose of coercion, but fifty thousand, if 
necessary, for the defense of our rights and those of our Southern brothers."' 
1 An exact statement of the number of troops raised by the South can- 
not be given. They are estimated at 600,000. Of the troops of the 
North Dr. Lyon G. Tyler writes: " The total number of men furnished to 
the United States army from April 15, 1861, to the close of the war was 
2,326,168 ... In the Northern army there were 1,325,297 whites from the 
North, 316,424 whites from the South [Ky., Md., Mo., W. Va.], 186,017 
negroes, 3,520 Indians and 494,900 foreigners .... therefore the foreign 
and negro elements of the Northern army were greater than the entire 
army of the South." 



THE STRENGTH OF THE TWO NATIONS 349 

Material resources. — As you have already learned, the 
South was an agricultural section. It had no factories for 
equipping its soldiers with arms, ammunition, and clothing, 
or for building and equipping ships. Consequently, at 
first it had to look entirely to Europe for such supplies. 
Knowing this, Lincoln declared all the Southern ports in a 
state of blockade and began the construction of a number 
of war vessels to prevent blockade runners from carrying 
cotton to Europe. As a result, the cotton grown in the 
South could not be sold; the Confederacy was unable to 
trade with European countries and was greatly crippled. 
Manufactured goods could not be secured from England. 

Financial conditions. — The Confederacy was also se- 
riously embarrassed by a scarcity of money. The large 
banking centers of the country were in the North, and the 
gold and silver coin was deposited chiefly in those banks. 
The South had to rely, therefore, on what coin could be 
obtained from Europe and upon the issues of paper money 
which decreased in value as the war continued. 

Both sides unprepared for war. — It was about a year 
after the beginning of the war before the North was 
prepared to fight. The volunteers had to be trained, and 
many of them had to be taught to shoot. Very few Union 
men realized the greatness of the task they had under- 
taken. Seward prophesied that the trouble 'Svould blow 
over in sixty days"; and when General Sherman, who had 
lived in the South, said that it would take two hundred 
thousand men four years to subdue the South, some one 
said he was crazy. The South was even more unprepared 
for the struggle than the North ; for not only did it have no 
standing army, but it had no guns or military supplies. 



650 



OUR REPUBLIC 



CHAPTER LXXXIV 



THE WAR IN 1861 

Plans of action. — Generally speaking, the Nortn was 
aggressive throughout the conflict, hoping to conquer the 
Southern States and force them back into the Union. 

The object of the 
Southern States was 
to defend themselves 
against invasion and 
to maintain their in- 
dependence. 

There were three 
plans of action adopt- 
ed by the Federal 
Government: (1) to 
keep up a successful 
blockade of all the 
Southern ports and 
to prevent the Con- 
federates from trad- 
ing with Europe; (2) 
to advance upon 
Richmond, which as 
soon as Virginia had 
seceded from the Union became the capital of the Con- 
federacy, and break up the Confederate Government; 
(3) to get possession of the Mississippi River by destroy- 
ing the Confederate fortifications and boats which de- 
fended it, cut the Confederacy in two, and thus weaken its 
possibiUties of success. 




Campaign in Virginia in 1S61 



THE WAR IN 1861 351 

Battle of Big Bethel. — Many of the Northern people be- 
lieved that Richmond could be taken in ninety days, and 
that this would put an end to the war. The campaign of 
1861, therefore, opened with a series of advances toward 
the Confederate capital. An effort was made (May, 
1861) by a Federal force to advance from Fortress Monroe 
on Hampton Roads; but it was successfully opposed by 
General Magruder at Big Bethel. This is often referred 
to as the first battle of the War of Secession. The Con- 
federate force at this point was composed chiefly of North 
Carolinians and Virginians; and though not trained sol- 
diers, they fought with a bravery that gave promise of a 
long struggle (map, page 359). 

First battle of Manassas. — W^hile General McClellan 
was in western Virginia trying to organize a new State out 
of the counties that opposed secession, General McDowell 
was ordered to advance on Richmond. He was met 
(July 21st) by a Confederate force at Manassas Junction, 
about thirty-five miles from Washington. In the early 
part of the day the Federals were victorious, but toward 
midday General Thomas J. Jackson ^ rallied the Con- 

> Thomas J. Jackson was born in Virginia in January, 1824. Like Lee 
and Davis, he was educated at West Point. While there he wrote in his 
notebook a number of resolutions to govern his life. One of these was, 
"Through life let your principal object be a discharge of duty." We 
are told that he rendered very conspicuous service in the Mexican War and 
that "no officer in the whole army in Mexico was promoted so often for 
meritorious conduct, or made so great a stride in rank." He was a faith- 
ful church member and was so interested in the religious condition of the 
negroes that he taught a class in the colored Sunday-school that he 
estabhshed at Lexington. He taught in the Virginia Military Institute 
before entering the army of the Confederacy. His distinguished services 
in this great conflict will be referred to in other parts of this book. We are 
told that "he never asked for a day's furlough while he was in the army. 
In all things he was faithful — to his family, to his country, and to his God. " 



352 



OUR REPUBLIC 



federates after they had retreated about a mile and a half* 
Then came Confederate reenforcements under Generals 
Beauregard, Joseph E. Johnston, and Kirby Smith; and 
their attack became so vigorous that the Federals were 
completely routed and fled in disorder toward Washington. 
It was in this battle that General Bee rushed up to 
General Thomas J. Jackson, who sat calmly on his horse 

watching the battle, and ex- 
claimed, ' ' General, they are beat- 
ing us back!" 

''Then, sir," replied Jackson, 
''we'll give them the bayonet." 
A few moments later Bee cried, 
in rall^^ing his soldiers : 

"There stands Jackson like a 
stone wall." From that time 
this great leader was popularly 
known as "Stonewall Jackson." 
Retreat to Washington. — Many 
senators and representatives and 
private citizens, including ladies dressed "in holiday 
attire," hired carriages and drove out from Washington 
toward Manassas to witness the battle. The following 
account of the retreat was written by one of the spectators, 
Albert G. Riddle, an eminent lawyer of Cleveland, Ohio: 

" There never was anything like it for causeless, sheer, absolute, 
absurd cowardice, or rather panic, on this miserable earth before. 
Off they went, one and all; off down the highway, over across 
fields, toward the woods, anywhere, everywhere to escape. Well, 
the further they ran the more frightened they grew; and 
although we moved on as rapidly as we could, the fugitives 
passed us by scores. To enable them better to run, they 




General Thu-mas J. Jackson 



WAR ON THE SEA 353 

threw away their l^lankets, knapsacks, canteens, and finally 
muskets, cartridge boxes, and everything else. We called to 
them, tried to tell them there was no danger, called them to 
stop, implored them to stand. We called them cowards, 
denounced them in the most offensive terms, put out our 
heavy revolvers and threatened to shoot them, but all in vain; 
a cruel, crazy, mad, hopeless panic possessed them, and 
communicated to everybody about, in front and rear. The 
heat was awful, although now about six; the men were exhausted 
— their mouths gaped, their lips cracked and blackened with 
the powder of the cartridges they had bitten off in the battle, 
their eyes starting in frenzy; no mortal ever saw such a 
mass of ghastly wretches. As we passed the poor, demented, 
exhausted wretches who could not climb into the high, closed 
baggage wagons, they made frantic efforts to get onto and into 
our carriage. They grasped it everywhere, and got onto it, 
into it, over it, and implored us every wa\' to take them on." 

War in the West. — General Fremont had charge of the 
Union army in the West with headquarters at St. Louis. 
Under his direction General Nathaniel Lyon tried to 
secure all of Missouri, but was defeated at Wilson's 
Creek near Springfield, by General Price, who held 
southern Missouri for the Confederacy. \A^ien the year 
1861 closed, the South had been successful in practically 
every battle. 

CHAPTER LXXXV 

WAR ON THE SEA 

Preparations for naval warfare. — A call from President 
Davis for privateers to destroy the commerce of the 
United States was followed by a proclamation from 
President Lincoln (April 19, 1861) declaring Southern 



354 OUR REPUBLIC 

ports in blockade and announcing that all men acting 
as privateersmen under Confederate authority would be 
treated as pirates when captured. President Davis 
answered (April 29th) that if any Confederate privateers- 
men were put to death as pirates, he would put to death 
an equal number of Union soldiers held as prisoners. 

Treatment of Confederate crews. — Early in June, 1861, 
the privateer Savannah was captured and its crew taken 
to New York City and placed in jail to await their trial 
for piracy. President Davis then put in chains some of 
the prisoners taken at the battle of Manassas. This 
caused President Lincoln to decide to treat the captives 
taken on privateers as prisoners of war, and to hold them 
eligible to exchange as such. 

"Trent" affair.— In November, 1861, James M. Mason of 
Virginia and John Slidell of Louisiana were sent by the 
Confederate Government to represent it in England and 
France. They escaped through the blockade and took 
passage at Havana on the British mail steamer Trent. 
This vessel was stopped by a United States gunboat under 
Captain Wilkes (November 8th), and Mason and Slidell 
were made prisoners and carried to Boston. Congress 
passed a vote of thanks to Captain Wilkes. But the 
English people were greatly incensed, and declared that 
the United States had no right to search their vessels. 
Lincoln was forced to give up the commissioners and to 
apologize to the English Government. At one time it 
looked as if England would declare war against the United 
States, an act which would probably have resulted in the 
success of the Confederacy. 

Attitude of England and France. — Each section of the 
country expected to get sympathy, if not help, from 



WAR ON THE SEA 



355 



Europe. The Confederate Government thought that 
England would be forced to recognize its independence 
because the blockade would close the English cotton fac- 
tories and bring distress to thousands of workmen. But 
England did nothing more than join with France in recog- 
nizing the "war rights" of the Confederacy and in agreeing 
to take no part in the conflict. 




The Last I'lcjiir uf the "Alabama" 



Blockade runners. — As the United States was more able 
to build ships than was the Confederacy, the blockade of 
Southern ports became more effective as the war con- 
tinued. It was soon impossible for Southern ships to take 
cotton to European markets and bring back guns and 
other necessary equipment, to say nothing of medicines 
and common supplies, unless they ''ran the blockade." 
The blockade runners were usually small, swift vessels 
painted a dark color and otherwise equipped so that they 
could slip by the Federal boats at night without being 
discovered. If they passed the blockading vessels, they 



356 



OUR REPUBLIC 



ran into a foreign port — Nassau, Havana, or some other. 
After selling their cargoes and buying supplies, they re- 




The " Nashville " Running the Block.\de at Beaufort, North Carolina 

turned home by the same methods they had followed in 
getting away. 

Battle of the Ironclads. — In March, 1862, a desperate 
effort was made to break the blockade by a new method of 
naval warfare. When the Confederates seized the Navy 
Yard at Portsmouth, they raised one of the vessels, the 
Merrimac, which had been sunk by the Union forces. It 

was renamed 
the Virginia and, 
after it had been 
repaired, was 
covered with a 
double coat of 
iron and provided 
with a great iron 
prow. This prow 
was built under 
the water, to be 
used in ramming 
and sinking the wooden vessels belonging to the blockad- 
ing fleet. The Virginia then steamed into Hampton 




The 



" Virginia " Ramming the Federal 
" Cumberland " 



WAR ON THE SEA 



357 



Roads under the command of Captain Buchanan, to attack 
the Federal fleet. With its prow or ''ram" it at once sank 
the Cumberland, and routed the whole Union fleet of five 
gunboats. The shot and shell from the Federal batteries 
had no effect on its iron sides. 

The next morning the Federal fleet was reenforced by 
the sudden arrival of another ironclad, the Monitor, which 




The "Virginia" Confronted by the "Monitor" 
This illustration and the other line drawings picturing scenes of the War of 
Secession are reproduced from the original wood engravings made from the 
sketches of the field artists and war correspondents of 1861-65. 

was built with its hull under water and a round revolving 
tower for guns on top. It looked like "a, cheese box on a 
raft." The terrible battle which followed was the first 
ever fought between ironclads. Neither ship could cap- 
ture or sink the other. After a desperate struggle of four 
hours each vessel v/ithdrew, the Virginia returning to 
Norfolk, and the Monitor to Fortress Monroe. The 
Monitor refused to accept a challenge to renew the battle 
with the Virginia ^ 



^ Neither vessel rendered any other important service, the Monitor 
being lost in a storm off the Carolina coast and the Virginia being blown 
up by its crew to keep it from falling into the hands of the Federals upon 
the capture of Norfolk. 



358 



OUR REPUBLIC 



The result of this battle was of great importance to 
naval fighting in the world. It showed that no boats ex- 
cept ironclads could be successfully used in warfare. 

Career of the "Alabama." — As there were no important 
shipyards in the South, the Confederacy could have had 
few war vessels but for the English ship builders. The 
first Confederate vessel built in England was the Florida, 
which entered the Confederate service in March, 1862. In 
August of the same year the most celebrated of the English- 
built vessels, the Alabama, unfurled the Stars and Bars and 

entered upon her career of de- 
struction, under the command 
of the brilliant Southern ad- 
miral, Raphael Semmes. 

After making a few captures 
near the British coast, the Ala- 
bama cruised upon the oceans. 
By the first of November she 
had taken twenty-two Federal 
vessels. In the Gulf of jVIexieo, 
and off the coasts of South Amer- 
ica and Africa, she captured a 
number more. In less than two 
years the Alabama captured 
sixty-nine vessels and destroyed ten million dollars' worth 
of property. Her career was finally brought to an end 
(June, 1864) by an encounter with a Federal vessel, the 
Kearsarge, off the harbor of Cherbourg, France. Her 
drowning crew was rescued by a private yacht belonging 
to an English gentleman.^ 

1 The United States claimed that England had violated the law of 
nations by allowing Confederate war vessels to be built in her waters. 




Raphael Semmes, Admiral 
C.S.N. 



1862— ADVANCE ON RICHMOND 



359 



CHAPTER LXXXVI 

THE WAR IN 1862— ADVANCE ON RICHMOND 

Plans of action. — After the Battle of Manassas, General 
McClellan spent over six months in drilling and organiz- 




The Peninsula Campaign 



ing his army with a view 
renewing the effort to capture 
Richmond. There were three 
ways of reaching that city 
from Washington: (1) by the 
Chesapeake and thence up the Peninsula between the 
York River and the James River; (2) by a direct route 
overland; (3) through the Shenandoah valley. General 
McClellan decided to try the first of these routes, as a 
great part of the distance could be covered by water. 
He therefore sailed from Washington with a large army 
(March, 1862), and took his position at Fortress Monroe. 

After many years the "Alabama Claims" were finally (1872) referred to 
a special court of arbitration, which decided that England should pay 
the United States fifteen and a half millions of dollars for the damages 
inflicted on American commerce by Engfish-built Confederate cruisers. 



360 OUR REPUBLIC 

The Peninsula campaign. — As McClellan slowly ad- 
vanced up the Peninsula, every inch of ground over 
which he passed was contested with him by the Confeder- 
ates under Generals Magruder and Johnston. Yorktown 
was finally evacuated by the Confederates; and after a 
Federal defeat at Williamsburg, Johnston retired toward 




General Robert E. Lee on His Horse "Traveller" 

Richmond. He was followed by McClellan's army, 
which got within sight of the church steeples of the Con- 
federate capital. For two days (May 31st and June 1st) 
a terrible battle raged between the two armies at Seven 
Pines and Fair Oaks. The Federals were routed at first, 
but were saved by the arrival of reenforcements. General 
Johnston was wounded, and General Robert E. Lee^ took 

^Robert E. Lee was a son of Henry Lee, the Revolutionary General 
who was known as "Light Horse Harry." The great Confederate leader 
was born January 19, 1807. Like President Davis, he was educated at the 
West Point Military Academy, where he won high rank because of his 
obedience to orders and his studious habits. He served in the ^lexican 



1862— ADVANCE ON RICHMOND 361 

command. In this battle Richmond was nearly taken. 
One corps of McClellan's army got within four miles of 
the city. 

The plan of advance on Richmond and protection of 
Washington. — If McClellan could have concentrated all 
his forces, undoubtedly he would have captured Rich- 
mond. It was necessary, however, for him to leave a 
second force under General McDowell to protect Washing- 
ton and be ready to advance on Richmond by the direct 
overland route toward Fredericksburg. A third force 
under General Banks was ordered to occupy the Shenan- 
doah valley to prevent the Confederates from invading 
Maryland. A fourth force under General Fremont was 
ordered to keep the Confederates from invading West 
Virginia. If possible, all these forces were to advance grad- 
ually toward Richmond from the North. 

"Jackson's Valley campaign." — Johnston sent an army 
of sixteen thousand men under Stonewall Jackson into the 
Shenandoah valley to oppose Fremont and Banks, each 
of whom had a larger force than Jackson. He fell upon 

War under General Scott, who said that Lee was the best soldier he had 
ever seen. When Virginia seceded from the Union, Lee, then a colonel 
in the United States army, severed his connection with the army and 
returned to his native State. It is said that before leaving the Union 
service he was offered the command of the Northern armies, and that he 
replied, "If I owned the four million slaves in the South, I would give 
them all up to save the Union; but how can I draw my sword on my 
native State? " When he accepted the command of Virginia's army of 
defense, he said, "Trusting in Almighty God and an approving conscience 
and the aid of my fellow-citizens, I devote myself to the services of my 
native State." After the war he became President of Washington and 
Lee University, devoting the remainder of his life to the training of the 
young men of the South. He said to a Southern mother, "Do not train 
up your children to be foes of the United States Government. We are 
one country. Bring them up Americans." Lee died October 12, 1870. 



362 



OUR REPUBLIC 



Banks at Winchester and drove him across the Potomac 
River. He quickly turned to meet Fremont, who had 
crossed the Alleghany Mountains, and defeated him at Cross 
Keys near Staunton, Virginia. He then crossed the Shenan- 
doah River and the next day defeated at Port Repub- 
lic a part of ]\Ic- 
Do well's army, 
which had crossed 
the Blue Ridge 
Mountains. ^ 

In the short 
period of thirty- 
five days, in May 
and June, 1S62, 
Jackson had suc- 
cessfully executed 
one of the most brilliant campaigns recorded in history. 
He had marched over four hundred miles, won six battles, 
defeated four armies amounting to sixty thousand men, 
and inflicted a loss upon his opponents of seven thousand 
captured, killed, and wounded. Then, with a daring 
scarcely known in history, he left a small force in the 
valley and returned to Richmond to aid in the defeat of 
McClellan. This campaign caused so much fear for the 
safety of Washington that McDowell was prevented from 




Skirmishers on the Road to Richmond 



' At one time in this campaign Jackson and his staff were separated from 
their army with a river between. Finding that a bridge over the river was 
guarded by a gun in charge of a few Union soldiers, Jackson rode up to 
the officer and boldly said, " Who told you to place that gun there ? 
Bring it here at once." As the officer thought Jackson was a Federal 
general, he promptly moved the gun, and the Confederate general and his 
men dashed across the bridge and rejoined their army before they could be 
stopped. 



1862— MARYLAND AND NORTHERN VIRGINIA 363 

joining McClellan in the advance on Richmond and was 
ordered to hurry his army of forty thousand men to the 
defense of the Federal capital. 

The Seven Days' Battle.— After the battle of Fair Oaks, 
IMcClellan's army was inactive, while Lee was preparing 
for a vigorous attack. In order to learn the strength and 
location of the Union forces, the dashing cavalry officer, 
General J. E. B. Stuart, with twelve hundred Confeder- 
ate horsemen, went entirely around McClellan's army and 
returned with the desired information. The series of 
bloody engagements known as the Seven Days' Battle 
between Lee and McClellan began on June 26th. The 
Confederates were at first repulsed; but on the next three 
daA^s Lee, Jackson, and Stuart made decided gains. Al- 
though the Federals were finally successful at Malvern 
Hill, McClellan withdrew his army to Harrison's Landing 
on the James River, where it was protected by the gun- 
boats; and the attack against Richmond was given up. 
McClellan lost sixteen thousand men, and Lee twenty 
thousand; but the Confederates made a successful defense 
of their capital. 

CHAPTER LXXXVII 

THE WAR IN 1862— CAMPAIGNS IN MARYLAND AND 
NORTHERN VIRGINIA 

Second battle of Manassas. — After McClellan's defeat 
President Lincoln called for three hundred thousand new 
troops. He made General Halleck Commander-in-Chief 
of the LTnion army. General John Pope was given com- 
mand of the forces before Washington, and General 
^McClellan was ordered to withdraw from the peninsula. 



364 



OUR REPUBLIC 



Lee and Jackson with fifty thousand men advanced 
north and inflicted a disastrous defeat on Pope's army of 
seventy thousand on the old battlefield of Manassas 
(August, 1862). The Federal army again retreated to 
Washington. Pope was succeeded by McClellan, who was 
intrusted with the defense of the city. As there was no 




Harper's Ferry in 1862 
Prom a contemporary sketch. 

immediate danger of another campaign against Richmond, 
Lee decided to invade the North. 

The Maryland campaign. — Lee quickly crossed the 
Potomac into Maryland. As he found it difficult to get 
supplies, he sent Jackson to capture a Federal stronghold 
at Harper's Ferry and to open up communications with 
the Shenandoah valley. On September 15th Jackson 
took Harper's Ferry, capturing twelve thousand prisoners 
and large supplies of arms and ammunition. 



1862— MARYLAND AND NORTHERN VIRGINIA 365 

Two days later McClellan's army of eighty-seven thou- 
sand men attacked Lee's army of less than forty thousand 
near Sharpsburg on Antietam Creek, Maryland. In a 
bloody battle Lee's small army successfully met every as- 
sault and defeated the Federal army at every point. At 
the end of the day over twenty-three thousand men lay 
dead and wounded on the field, the losses being almost 
equally divided between the two armies. The battle was 
not a decided victory for either side. Although McClellan 
received reenforcements on the second day, he failed to re- 
new the fight. After waiting on the battlefield twenty- 
four hours, Lee quietly withdrew his army into Virginia, 
but McClellan waited five weeks before attempting to 
cross the Potomac. The Confederates were greatly dis- 
appointed because but few Marylanders joined Lee's army; 
and the Federals were disappointed because McClellan 
did not make a better showing with the superior force 
at his command. 

Battle of Fredericksburg. — General McClellan was then 
succeeded by General Ambrose E. Burnside, v/ho at once 
began to pursue General Lee. The Confederate army was 
overtaken at Fredericksburg on the south side of the Rap- 
pahannock River. Here Burnside made an attack, send- 
ing his army across the river in three divisions. Lee's 
army was again about half the size of the attacking Fed- 
eral forces. But the result of the battle of Fredericksburg 
(December 13th) was terribly disastrous to the Federals, 
each division being almost completely destroyed and 
driven back in great confusion to the northern bank of 
the Rappahannock. The Union loss was about thirteen 
thousand men, and the Confederate loss about five thou- 
sand. Burnside, almost frantic with grief, pointed his 



366 OUR REPUBLIC 

finger at his dead and dying, and cried, "Oh, those men, 
those men over there! I am thinking of them all the 
time." 

General Burnside resigned, and General Joseph Hooker, 
known as ''Fighting Joe Hooker," was appointed to 
succeed him. The Federal army went into winter quar- 
ters in northern Virginia and kept up close communication 
with Washington. Lee occupied the southern bank of 
the Rappahannock. This ended the war in the East in 
1862. 

Results of the war in the East in 1862. — For the most 
part the war in the East in 1862 had been disastrous to the 
Northern armies. Three campaigns against Richmond had 
failed: the first, led by McClellan; the second, by Pope; 
and the third, by Burnside. 



CHAPTER LXXXVIII 

THE WAR IN 1862— CAMPAIGNS IN KENTUCKY AND 

TENNESSEE 

Plan of action in the West. — Although disheartened by 
the results of the first year of the war, Lincoln prepared 
for a vigorous Western campaign in 1862. Edwin M. 
Stanton, the Secretary of War, was unpopular and dis- 
agreeable, but he kept the army well supplied with troops 
and provisions. 

The Federal Government attempted to gain control of 
Kentucky and Tennessee with a view to opening the Mis- 
sissippi River. A strong Confederate force under General 
Albert Sidney Johnston was stationed throughout middle 
and southern Kentucky, extending from Columbus on the 



1862— KENTUCKY AND TENNESSEE 



367 



Mississippi River to the Alleghany Mountains. The west- 
ern part of Kentucky had also been invaded by a Confed- 
erate army under General Leonidas Polk. In northern 
Tennessee the Confederates had Fort Henry on the Ten- 
nessee River and Fort Donelson on the Cumberland. 
Albert Sidney Johnston was opposed by a large Federal 
force commanded by Henry W. Halleck, aided by Gen- 
erals Buell, Thomas, and Grant. 

Federal successes in Tennessee. — Starting from Cairo 
(Illinois), General U. S. Grant advanced up the Tennessee 
River against Fort Henry, which he captured without 
difficulty by the aid of 
a gunboat fleet. He 
then marched rapidly 
across the country and 
surrounded Fort Donel- 
son, which the Confed- 
erate General Buckner 
was forced to surrender 
(February 16th) with 
fourteen thousand sol- 
diers, forty pieces of 
artillery, and a quantity 
of military stores. This 
was the first great vic- 
tory of the North, and it 
was a severe blow to the 
Confederate cause. As a result, all of Kentucky and the 
northern and western parts of Tennessee were practically 
in the hands of the Federals. The Union forces under 
General Buell soon occupied Nashville (February 25th). 
Andrew Johnson, who had been a Democratic senator 




Forts and Battlegrounds of the 
Western Campaigns 



368 OUR REPUBLIC 

from Tennessee and who had opposed secession, was made 
military governor of that State by President Lincoln. 

Turning point in Grant's career. — General Grant was 
now the hero of the war; but he had practically disre- 
garded his superior officer, General Halleck, by starting 
toward Nashville without orders. Moreover, he was 
accused of carelessness in sending in reports as to his 
movements. General Halleck reported him to the com- 
mander of the Federal armies, General McClellan, who 
ordered Grant to be removed from command. Halleck 
did not dare take this step, however, because of Grant's 
popularity. On the other hand, Grant was angry and 
asked to be relieved of command. But when Grant's 
reports were in, Halleck expressed his satisfaction, and 
the matter was dropped. The United States Govern- 
ment thereupon appointed a special agent, Charles A. 
Dana, to remain with Grant's army and to send daily 
telegraphic reports of its movements. 

Battle of Shiloh. — In the meantime Grant had re- 
ceived reenforcements which gave him an army of about 
forty thousand men, and he had turned back toward 
the Mississippi River. Albert Sidney Johnston got to- 
gether at Corinth an army of about the same number and 
prepared to attack Grant at Pittsburg Landing, or Shiloh, 
on the Tennessee River, not far from the boundary lines 
of Mississippi, Alabama, and Tennessee. 

The Confederates had practically defeated Grant in the 
battle of Shiloh,^ April 6, 1862, when they sustained a great 
loss in the death of General Johnston. Unfortunately for 
the Confederates, Buell, who had been sent by Halleck 

' The battle takes its name from a little log church that stood near the 
scene of conflict. 




Ulysses S. Grant 



1862— MISSISSIPPI AND TENNESSEE 369 

with twenty thousand men to reenforce Grant, arrived 
in time to turn the tide of battle and to force Beauregard, 
who had succeeded Johnston, to retire to Corinth and 
finally to Tupelo in. Mississippi. 



CHAPTER LXXXIX 

THE WAR IN 1862— CAMPAIGNS IN MISSISSIPPI AND 

TENNESSEE 

Conquest of the upper and lower Mississippi. — Fed- 
eral gunboats under Admiral Foote took Island No. 10 
in the Mississippi River, with five or six thousand 
prisoners, and then captured New Madrid. Fort Pillow 
above Memphis then fell (June 5th); and on the day 
following, Memphis itself was captured by a Federal 
fleet. These conquests opened the upper Mississippi 
from its source to Vicksburg. 

Meantime Admiral Farragut had entered the mouth 
of the Mississippi River, passed two Confederate forts 
and seventeen vessels, and, with the aid of General 
Benjamin F. Butler, had captured New Orleans (April 
25th). The government of the city was intrusted to 
General Butler, who ruled it "in a manner that has made 
his name forever odious to the people of the South. "^ 

1 On May 15th Butler issued an order which subjected to disgraceful 
treatment any woman who should by "word, gesture, or movement, 
insult or show contempt for any officer or soldier of the United States." 
This order aroused the greatest indignation throughout the South, in 
England, and in parts of the North. It led to the imprisonment for many 
months of the mayor and other prominent citizens of the city because they 
protested against its execution. Butler also hanged a man for removing 
the Federal flag from the mint. 



370 



OUR REPUBLIC 



The fall of New Orleans left only two Confederate 
strongholds on the Mississippi — Port Hudson and Vicks- 
burg. This loss was a great disaster to the Confederacy, 
as New Orleans was the most important city in the Gulf 
States. Its capture meant more than an early overthrow 
of Confederate authority in Louisiana; it put the Gulf 
of Mexico under control of the Federal fleet. It also put 
an end to the gathering of recruits and supplies for the 




The Bombardment of Vicksburg by the Combined Fleets of Admirals 
Farragut and Porter 



Southern armies from the important region west of the 
Mississippi. Thousands of bales of cotton, the ship- 
3^ards at Algiers across the river, several unfinished ves- 
sels, and much other property were destroyed by the 
Confederates when they saw that the city must fall. 

Campaigns against Vicksburg. — After the fall of New 
Orleans the Confederate Government sent additional guns 
and troops to defend Vicksburg. V^hen the Federal fleet 
reached that city and demanded its surrender, the people 
of Vicksburg said with one voice, "The city must be 



1862— MISSISSIPPI AND TENNESSEE 



371 



defended, even if our houses and property are destroyed." 
About the same time the gunboat fleet from the upper 
river reached the city. The two great fleets bombarded 
the city for two months. They were finally dispersed 
by the Confederate ram, Arkansas, which ran out of the 
mouth of the Yazoo River and, ''single-handed, attacked 
the whole Federal fleet." This attack has been charac- 
terized as ''one of the most brilliant naval feats recorded 
in the annals of 
naval warfare." 
The Federals 
then decided that 
Vicksburg could 
not be taken from 
the water front 
and gave up the 
effort. 

A second cam- 
paign against 
Vicksburg began 
in December, 
1862. General 

Sherman in command of a Federal force was sent down 
the river from Memphis with the fleet to attack the city 
unexpectedly. General Grant intended to cooperate with 
him b}^ leading an army across the country from Holly 
Springs. Both of these plans failed. General Forrest 
destroyed sixty miles of railroad track over which Grant 
was supplying his army, and General Van Dorn captured 
and destroyed millions of dollars' worth of Federal supplies 
at Holly Springs. This forced Grant to abandon his plan 
and return to IMemphis. General Sherman was disas- 




\ Umon Tr\is sport Forcing Its 
Bayou 



^^ \Y UP K 



372 OUR REPUBLIC 

trously repulsed by General Stephen D. Lee at Chickasaw 
Bayou, ten miles from Vicksburg (December 29, 1862), 
and withdrew from before the city a few days later. 

Confederate losses west of the Mississippi. — Federal 
General S. R. Curtis was sent by Halleck to recover 
southern Missouri and if possible to capture Arkansas. 
He was opposed by General Van Dorn; but a Union vic- 
tory at Pea Ridge, Arkansas, left Missouri and northern 
Arkansas in the hands of the Federals. 

Bragg's invasion of Tennessee and Kentucky. — After 
the Confederate army under General Beauregard retired 
from Corinth to Tupelo (page 369), Bragg was put in 
charge, Beauregard being too ill to direct the army. 
Bragg determined to recover Tennessee and Kentucky 
for the Confederates, if possible. He marched rapidly 
through eastern Tennessee across Kentucky and was on 
the point of attacking Louisville when his army was 
checked by General Buell at Perry ville (October 8th). 
Thereupon Bragg, fearing that he would be cut off from 
his supplies, was forced to retreat. Finally he went back 
to Chattanooga, where he strongly fortified himself; and 
the Union forces took up their headquarters at Nash- 
ville. 

Bragg determined to make one more effort to gain a 
Confederate foothold in Tennessee. He marched against 
Nashville, but was met at Murfreesboro by the Federal 
army under Rosecrans, who had been put in Buell's 
place. After a bloody battle of three days, the Con- 
federates were forced to withdraw from the field (Janu- 
ary 2, 1863) and to return to Chattanooga. The Federal 
army, however, was so badly crippled that it could not 
follow in pursuit. 



1862— POLITICAL CONDITIONS 373 

Battle of Corinth. — General Bragg left a Confederate 
force in northern Mississippi under command of Generals 
Van Dorn and Price, who had crossed the Mississippi 
River from Arkansas after the battle of Pea Ridge. They 
made a daring attempt (October "Sd and 4th) to recapture 
Corinth from the Federals commanded by General Rose- 
crans, but they were repulsed with great losses after they 
had taken part of the town. The Confederate army 
then retreated to Grenada, where it was encamped at the 
time of the second campaign against Vicksburg. 

Results of the year in the "West. — The war in the West 
in 1862 had been terribly disastrous to the Confederate 
cause. Kentucky, most of Tennessee, northern and 
western Mississippi, Missouri, and northern Arkansas had 
passed into the hands of the Federals. The fortifications 
at Vicksburg and Chattanooga were the most important 
strongholds still held by the Southern army in these 
States. 

CHAPTER XC 

POLITICAL AND ECONOMIC CONDITIONS IN 1862 

Effects of the blockade. — At the close of 1861 the Con- 
federates had not felt keenly the results of the general 
blockade of their ports by the Union vessels, but at the 
close of 1862 the soldiers of the South were suffering 
greatly for the necessaries of life. Nevertheless, they 
continued to struggle with such aid as they could get 
from home; for the women, old men, children, and slaves 
made homespun clothes and coarse shoes, hats, and under- 
clothing for the army. Coffee and sugar were scarce, 
though sufficient food for supplies still came from southern 



374 



OUR REPUBLIC 



Virginia, the Carolinas, Georgia, and the Gulf States 
east of the Mississippi. 

The South was still hoping for England's interference, 
since the laboring class in England had been suffering 
from the shutting down of the cotton mills. But the 
Federal Government sent over three shiploads of food to 
help relieve their distress. The supply of cotton in 
England was so diminished that by September, 1862, it 
was selling for sixty cents a pound. 

Expenses of the war. — As the war was costing the 
North two millions of dollars a day, the Federal Govern- 
ment was com- 
pelled to issue a 
great quantity of 
greenbacks to meet 
this expense. The 
National Bank 
system in force to- 
day was also es- 
tablished to secure 
money for the 
Union. According to its requirements no man should 
run a bank and issue notes unless the capital stock of the 
bank was invested in Government bonds, and these 
bonds were deposited with the treasurer of the United 
States. This forced the people to buy the bonds of the 
Government. State banks were taxed so heavily that 
they had to go out of business. 

Unfortunately the South could not inaugurate such a 
system; for its Government had little credit, and the 
money issued by it was, at the close of 1862, not worth 
half its face value. The banks in the South issued notes 




Paper Curkexcy Issued by the State of 
Alabama in 1863 



1862— POLITICAL CONDITIONS 375 

at will, which were nothing more than promissory notes 
without credit to back them. However, money for 
building new Confederate " rams " was easily obtained in 
London in 1863, the capitalists of Europe subscribing for 
three times as much as was necessary for this object. 

Political conditions in the North in 1862. — There were 
certain conditions in the North that were unfavorable to 
the United States Government. 

In the first place, the Republican party was made up 
of many Democrats and old-line Whigs and Abolition- 
ists. The Democrats and Whigs who had joined this party 
had done so only to exclude slavery from the Territories. 
The Abolitionists, on the other hand, had hoped for the 
total destruction of slavery. Practically all the Northern 
Democrats had joined with the Republicans in carrying 
on the war to force the Southern States back into the 
Union. As yet nothing had been done toward abolishing 
slavery in the seceded States, though some of the North- 
ern generals had gone so far as to declare the slaves free 
in the territory the Union army had entered. Of course 
these decrees were made without any lawful authority, 
and in each instance they were promptly annulled by 
President Lincoln. 

Secondly, in the summer of 1862 many people de- 
manded that Northern opponents of the war who had de- 
nounced Lincoln should be arrested for treason. The 
President finally (September, 1862) suspended the writ 
of habeas corpus. This was contrary to the Constitu- 
tion of the United States, but Congress later gave Lin- 
coln full authority in the matter. He could order the 
arrest and imprisonment of any man in the United States 
without even informing him why he was arrested. Thou- 



376 OUR REPUBLIC 

sands of men were kept in prison on such charges as "dis- 
loyal practice," ''discouraging enhstment," and the like. 
This caused much dissatisfaction in the North. 

In the third place, there were charges against the Gov- 
ernment of corruption in awarding contracts and favor- 
itism in making military appointments. As a result six 
Northern States — New York, Pennsylvania, Ohio, In- 
diana, Illinois, Wisconsin — that had gone Republican in 
1860, elected Democrats to Congress in 1862; and the 
Republicans had only a small majority left in the House 
of Representatives. ^ 

The Emancipation Proclamation. — In March, 1862, 
President Lincoln recommended that Congress pass a law 
encouraging the four slave-holding States still in the 
Union — Delaware, Maryland, Kentucky, and Missouri — 
to free the slaves by agreeing to pay their owners for 
them. But, to the disappointment of President Lincoln, 
these States took no action in the matter, as they were 
opposed to emancipation. The Abolitionists, by the 
summer of 1862, developed strength enough to abolish 
slavery in all the Territories and to free the slaves in the 
District of Columbia. In order to strengthen the war 
sentiment in the North, Lincoln finally decided to yield 
to the Abolitionists' demands that slavery should be en- 
tirely abohshed.i Immediately after the Federal success 
at Antietam he issued a proclamation (September, 1862) 
declaring that on January 1, 1863, all slaves in such slave- 

' President Lincoln wrote in August, 1862: "My paramount object in 
this struggle is to save the Union and is not either to save or destroy 
slavery. If I could save the Union without freeing any slave, I would 
do it; and if I could save it by freeing all the slaves, I would do it; and if I 
could save it by freeing some and leaving others alone, I would also do 
that." 



1862— POLITICAL CONDITIONS 377 

holding States as had not returned to the Union would be 
declared free. On January 1, 1863, he issued a second 
proclamation declaring all slaves in the States then in 
the Confederacy forever free, except in the territory 
under control of the United States army. He stated 
that this proclamation had ''no constitutional or legal 
justification, except as a war measure." 

Of course the proclamation had little immediate effect 
on the slaves in the Confederate States. Many of those 
who had gone with their masters to the front were faithful 
to the end of the war, and those who remained at home took 
care of the women and children and raised provisions to 
help supply the needs of the Southern armies.^ 

Admission of West Virginia. — As the western counties of 
Virginia were in sympathy with the Union, their people re- 
fused to join in the secession movement. When Virginia se- 
ceded, these counties set up a new government andwerelater 
admitted into the Union as West Virginia (1863). The ad- 
mission of West Virginia as a State without the consent of 
the Government of Virginia was a violation of the Consti- 
tution of L^nited States (see Constitution, Art. IV, sect. 3). 

The Conscription L^w and the Draft Act. — In order to 
provide soldiers for the Southern army, the Confederate 
Congress passed a Conscription Law requiring all able- 

1 "History has no parallel to the faith kept by the negro in the South 
during the war. There were often five hundred negroes to a single white 
man , and yet through these dusky throngs the women and children walked 
in safety, and the unprotected homes rested in peace. Unmarshaled, the 
black battalions moved patiently to the fields in the morning to feed the 
armies their idleness would have starved, and at night gathered anxiously 
at the big house to 'hear the news from marster, ' though conscious that his 
victory made their chains enduring. A thousand torches would have 
disbanded every Southern army, but not one was lighted." — Henry W. 
Grady. 



378 



OUR REPUBLIC 



bodied men, between certain ages, to enter the service. 
This law was extended as the war continued, until finally 
it included old men and boys. 

After the disastrous defeats of the Northern armies in 
1862 it was difficult to get volunteers to fill the ranks. 
The Federal Congress then followed the example of the 
Confederacy by passing a Draft Act (March, 1863), 
which authorized President Lincoln to make drafts on 
Northern citizens at discretion. This caused bloody 
draft riots in several Northern cities. The most violent 
outbreak was in New York City, where for a period of four 
days the rioters destroyed houses, hanged negroes, and 
fought the troops sent to quell them. 

CHAPTER XCI 



THE WAR IN 1S63— CAMPAIGNS IN THE WEST 

Third campaign against Vicksburg. — After the failure 
of the second campaign against Vicksburg (page 371), 

General Grant was left in 
charge of the territory about 
that city. He at once (Jan- 
uary, 1863) entered upon a 
third campaign, which re- 
sulted in the fall of that im- 
portant stronghold, July 4, 
1863. He descended the 
Mississippi River with an 
army of over fifty thousand 
men. After spending more 
than three months in vain attempts to reach the high- 
lands north of Vicksburg and in an unsuccessful effort to 




The Vicksburg Campaign 



1863— CAMPAIGNS IN THE WEST 



379 



change the course of the Mississippi River by means of 
a canal, he finally ran his boats past the batteries while 
"he marched part of his army on the Louisiana side to a 
point below the city. He then crossed the river and 
entered the State of Mississippi several miles south of 
Vicksburg. 

The Confederate forces in Mississippi were under the 
command of General Joseph E. Johnston, who occupied 
Jackson (May, 1863). He was 
assisted by General Pemberton, 
who was stationed at Vicksburg. 
Grant took possession of the sur- 
rounding country and prevented 
the sending of reenforcements 
to Vicksburg. Thus Johnston's 
and Pemberton 's forces were 
separated. After capturing Jack- 
son and defeating Pemberton at 
Champion Hills (May 16th), 
Grant settled down to besiege 

VicksburS" Joseph E. Johnston 

The siege and surrender of Vicksburg. — The memorable 
siege of Vicksburg lasted forty-seven days. During this 
time the doomed city, containing only seventeen thou- 
sand efTective Confederate troops, was truly surrounded 
by "a, sheet of bayonets and fire." Grant's army, now 
increased to over seventy-five thousand men, kept up a 
continuous fire upon the Confederate fortifications, from 
the land side, while Admiral Porter's fleet of gunboats on 
the water front threw into the city, ''day and night, the 
largest shells and shots known in modern warfare." The 
inhabitants sought refuge in caves dug in the hillsides; 




380 OUR REPUBLIC 

and after the supply of food had been exhausted, the 
hungry troops ate mule flesh. Hunger and exposure pro- 
duced disease, and on the day the city surrendered eight 
thousand men were reported sick. In demanding the 
surrender of the city, Grant said : ' ' Men who have shown 
so much endurance and courage as those now in Vicks- 
burg will always challenge the respect of an adversary 
and, I can assure you, will be treated with all the respect 
due them as prisoners of war." 

With the fall of Port Hudson, a few da^^s later, the 
Mississippi River throughout its entire length was under 
Federal control. This severed the Confederacy and has- 
tened its downfall. 

Battle of Chickamauga. — While Grant was engaged in 
opening the Mississippi, the Federals under Rosecrans 
stood facing the Confederates under Bragg near Murfrees- 
boro, Tennessee.^ The two forces finally met in battle 
at Chickamauga Creek, twelve miles from Chattanooga. 
After a terrible struggle of two days (September 19th and 
20th), the Union forces were driven from the field. They 
would have been totally routed but for the stand taken by 
General Thomas, which enabled them to withdraw into 
Chattanooga. From this time Thomas was known as 

^ The most famous and daring • cavalry raid of the war was that of 
General John H. Morgan, who was sent by Bragg into Kentucky at the 
head of twenty-five hundred men. After crossing that State, Morgan 
continued his raid into Indiana and Ohio, destroying much valuable 
property and moving day and night to keep from being captured. He 
was closely followed by a rapidly increasing band of militia and farmers 
who killed and wounded so many of his men that his band was reduced to 
about four hundred. Morgan was captured and confined in the peniten- 
tiary at Columbus (Ohio) , but finally escaped by digging a passage under the 
walls. The following year he was killed in Tennessee. 




A Group of Confederate Generals 



John B, Gordon 
Braxton Bragg 
Nathan B. Forrest 



John B. Hood 
J. E. B. Stuart 



Wade Hampton 
Albert Sidney Johnston 
P. G. T. Beauregard 



1863— CAMPAIGNS IN THE WEST 



381 




The Campaign neak Chattaxooga 



the ''Rock of Chickamauga." Bragg ^ now fortified 
Missionary Ridge and Lookout Mountain, and began to 
besiege Rosecrans in 
Chattanooga. Unfor- 
tunately for the Con- 
federates, Longstreet 
was sent with a part 
of the army to attempt 
the capture of Knox- 
ville. In this effort he 
failed after a gallant 
assault and was forced 
to retire into Virginia 
and join Lee's army. 
Grant came to Rose- 

erans's aid with a part of the army that had captured 
Vicksburg. The Federals also received reenforcements 
from Virginia, under General Hooker. General Grant then 
took command, and began his campaign to drive the 
Confederate forces from their position. 

Battles of Lookout Mountain and Missionary Ridge. — 
Hooker charged up Lookout Mountain (November 24th) 

1 General Bragg sent a soldier boy of seventeen, by the name of Sam 
Davis, to obtain information about the Federal fortifications in middle 
Tennessee. While on the way back to his command with important 
papers, Davis was captured by the Federals. When asked who gave him 
the drawings and specifications, he answered, "A Federal officer, high in 
command." He was then asked the name of the officer. His reply was, 
"I shall not tell you." He was condemned to hang as a spy, but was 
offered his life if he would tell the name of the officer from whom he had 
obtained the papers. To this proposition the young hero replied with 
indignation, "Do you suppose I would betray a friend to save my own 
life? No! I will die a thousand times first." He went to his execution 
with the courage of a martyr. 



382 OUR REPUBLIC 

and forced Bragg to withdraw and concentrate his forces 
on Missionary Ridge, The next day General Thomas 
drove the Confederates from this strong position. Bragg 
then withdrew his army into Georgia and took up winter 
quarters at Dalton. This ended the campaign in the 
West in 1863. 

Results of the war in the West in 1863. — The Federals 
had everywhere been successful. Grant had won for 
himself a name as a great general and was called to Wash- 
ington and placed in command of all the armies of the 
United States. General Bragg was succeeded by General 
Joseph E. Johnston in command of the Confederate 
forces in the West. 

CHAPTER XCII 

THE WAR IN 1863— CAMPAIGNS IN VIRGINIA AND 
PENNSYLVANIA 

Battle of Chancellorsville. — In April, 1863, General 
Hooker with over a hundred thousand men crossed the 
Rappahannock River to attack General Lee, who was 
encamped near Fredericksburg with somewhat over fifty 
thousand men. A bloody battle was fought at Chancel- 
lorsville (May 2d) in which Lee and Jackson outgeneraled 
Hooker and completely routed his army. But the Con- 
federates sustained a great loss in the death of one of 
their most beloved commanders. General Jackson. The 
general was fatally wounded by one of his own soldiers, 
who, in the darkness of night, mistook him and his staff 
for a body of Federal cavalry. He died a few days 
later, his last words being, "Let us cross over the river 
and rest under the shade of the trees." His death was 
a great calamity to the South and brought inexpressible 



1863— VIRGINIA AND PENNSYLVANIA 



383 



sorrow to his devoted followers. General Lee wept in his 
anguish and said, ''I have indeed lost my right arm."^ 

Battle of Gettysburg. — ^In June, 1863, General Lee 
made another attempt to carry the war into the North. 
With an army of 
seventy thousand 
men, he crossed 
the Potomac 
River at Harper's 
Ferry and pressed 
on into Pennsyl- 
vania. General 
George Meade, 
who had super- 
seded General 
Hooker, started 
with an army of 
a hundred thou- 
sand men to check 
the Confederate 
advance toward 
Harrisburg. The 
two armies met 
at Gettysburg, 
where a bloody three days' battle began, on July 1, 1863. 
On the first day Lee drove back the Union advance and 
almost destroyed two corps of their army. He then 
waited for the arrival of the rest of his force. On the 




Jackson at Chancellorsville 



^ As soon as General Lee heard that Jackson had been wounded, he 
wrote to Jackson: ■'Could I have directed events, I should have chosen, for 
the good of the country, to have been disabled in your stead. I congratu- 
late you upon the victory which is due to your skill and energy. " 



384 



OUR REPUBLIC 



afternoon of the second day a Confederate attack was 
made on the Union hnes, but they withstood the assaults. 
On the third day the Confederates made a desperate but 
unsuccessful attempt to dislodge the Federals from their 
position. After a terrible bombardment of two hours, 
beginning at one o'clock, Lee issued an order to charge 
the center of ]\Ieade's line on Cemetery Ridge. 

Pickett's charge was one of the most daring incidents 
in military history. As his men, about fifteen thousand 

in number, started across 
the open valley, a mile or 
more wide, between the 
two lines, there was a luH 
in the battle. When they 
had gone about half the 
distance, the Federal bat- 
teries poured a deadly 
fire into their ranks. But 
the lines re-formed and 
swept on, returning the 
fire until they ''rushed to 
the very mouths of the 
cannon. " They drove 
back the Federal line and 
planted the Confederate 
banner on the breastworks. But the deadly fire of the 
Federals was too much for human endurance. The Con- 
federates began to fall back, and the battle of Gettysburg 
was lost just as Longstreet was on the point of congratulat- 
ing Lee on his great victory. The Federals lost eight- 
een thousand men, killed and wounded, and the Confeder- 
ates over twenty thousand. 




From Chancellorsville to 
Gettysburg 



1863— VIRGINIA AND PENNSYLVANIA 385 

With guns in position Lee waited for a Federal attack 
during the entire day of July 4th, but the battle was not 
renewed. Though defeated , he made a masterly retreat and 
without further loss recrossed the Potomac into Virginia. 

Along the Atlantic Coast. — Lincoln's blockade of the 
Southern ports was very effective in 1863. Only a few 
''runners" were able to escape the vigilance of the United 
States vessels and take cotton from the South to exchange 
for foreign goods. The Federals, however, were able to 
capture, of the chief cities, only Norfolk and New Orleans. 
In April, 1863, a fleet of monitors attacked Fort Sumter, 
but were driven off by the Confederates under Beauregard, 
and the Federal effort to take Charleston by sea was 
abandoned. 

Results of the war in the East in 1863. — Although the 
Confederates in the East fought with a heroism that is un- 
excelled in history, they met with two fatal disasters in 
1863. On the eve of their triumph at Chancellorsville 
they lost one of their greatest commanders, Stonewall 
Jackson; and in the gory conflict at Gettysburg they were 
not only repulsed, but suffered a loss of numbers that was 
irreparable. 

July 4, 1863, marks a turning point in the war. On that 
day the Confederacy sustained the double misfortune of 
defeat at Vicksburg and at Gettysburg. These events 
greatly encouraged the North. They silenced many peo- 
ple who had opposed the Draft Act and had demanded 
an abandonment of the struggle. Although the war was 
now costing the Federal Government three millions of 
dollars a day, the conflict was renewed with increased 
vigor. From this time the Southern army fought on the 
defensive. 



386 OUR REPUBLIC 

The Southern losses at Vicksburg and Gettysburg kept 
the European powers from recognizing the independence 
of the Confederacy and thus destroyed all hope of foreign 
intervention to stop the conflict. 

In after years General Lee said : " If I had had Stonewall 
Jackson at Gettysburg, I would have won that battle; and 
a victory there would have given us Washington and Balti- 
more, if not Philadelphia, and would have established the 
independence of the country." 

CHAPTER XCIII 

THE WAR IN 1864— CAMPAIGNS IN THE LOWER SOUTH 

Last battles of the war in Mississippi. — After the fall of 
Vicksburg, all Confederate troops except a small cavalry 
force were taken from Mississippi. In the spring of 1864 
Sherman laid waste the country between Vicksburg and 
Meridian. In his report he said : ''We are absolutely 
stripping the country of corn, cattle, hogs, sheep, poul- 
try — everything; and the new-growing corn is being 
thrown open as pasture fields or hauled for the use of our 
animals. The wholesale destruction to which the country 
is now being subjected is terrible to contemplate. There 
are about eight hundred women and children who will 
perish unless they receive some relief." 
; General Forrest completely routed a large Federal 
force at Brice's Cross-Roads (June, 1864), gaining one of 
the most signal victories of the war for the forces en- 
gaged. A month later the fighting in Mississippi came to 
a close in a series of small engagements, culminating in a 
bloody battle at Harrisburg, near Tupelo. Although this 
was a drawn battle, the Federals retreated to Memphis. 



1864— CAMPAIGNS IN THE LOWER SOUTH 387 

The Red River expedition. — To complete the conquest 
of the States west of the Mississippi, a Federal force under 
General Banks was sent northward from the southern 
part of Louisiana, and another under General Steele was 
sent southward from Arkansas. Before they could unite. 
General Banks was defeated by General Richard Taylor 
in two battles in central Louisiana (April, 1864) and re- 
turned to the southern part of the State. Also, General 
Steele was defeated by General Kirby Smith in two battles 
in the northern part of Louisiana and retreated to Little 
Rock, Arkansas. 

Grant's plans for ending the war. — After General 
Grant's brilliant achievements in the West, the North 
looked upon him as the ''coming man" in the war. In 
March, 1864, he became Commander-in-Chief of all the 
armies of the United States. He soon decided on two 
great campaigns — one against Johnston, to be led by 
Sherman, who was to march through Georgia and cut off 
Confederate supplies from the lower South; the other 
to be led by himself against General Lee, with Rich- 
mond as his goal. If these plans were successfully 
carried out, they would prevent Johnston and Lee from 
reenforcing each other. ( 

Sherman's attack on Johnston. — In May, 1864, Sher- 
man moved from Chattanooga with over a hundred thou- 
sand men. He attacked Johnston's army of about half 
that size at Dalton, Georgia. As he was unable to defeat 
the Confederates, he tried by a flank movement to cut 
them off from Atlanta. This forced Johnston to retreat. 
For over two months Sherman continued to attack the Con- 
federates in front, attempting at the same time to flank 
them. In order to delay Sherman's advance and to avoid a 



388 



OUR REPUBLIC 



decisive battle against great odds in numbers, Johnston 
slowly retreated toward Atlanta. These movements cost 
Sherman about twenty-five thousand men by the time 
Johnston reached Atlanta in July, 1864. President Davis 
thought that Johnston should have attacked Sherman's 
army, and therefore removed him from command. 

Hood's attack on Sherman. — General John B. Hood 
was then placed in command of the Confederate forces, 




Sherman's March to the Sea 



with instructions to attack General Sherman and force 
him back. Hood fought with determination and made 
three desperate attempts to break Sherman's forces (July 
20th to 28th), but in each case he w^as unsuccessful. He 
was finally forced to evacuate Atlanta, which was at once 
occupied by the Federals (September 2d). 

Hood then moved around Sherman's arni}^ to cut off 
supplies, and to defeat Thomas, who had charge of the 
J'ederal army in Tennessee. If successful in these move- 



1864— CAMPAIGNS IN, THE LOWER SOUTH 389 

ments, he planned to join Lee in an attack on Grant in 
Virginia. 

Sherman's march to the sea. — According to Sherman's 
own report, he had "thoroughly destroyed Atlanta, save 
its mere dwelling houses and churches." He then started 
on his "march to the sea" (November 15th), intending to 
break the remainder of the Confederacy in two and to 
join in a movement to crush Lee's army. Sherman spread 
his army over a district sixty miles wide, burning all kinds 
of public and private buildings, destroying crops, killing 
horses, mules, cows, hogs, and fowl, tearing up railroad 
tracks, and twisting the heated rails around trees. After a 
march of four weeks he reached the sea on December 13th. 
He estimated that on this raid of about three hundred 
miles his army had destroyed property in Georgia to the 
value of one hundred million dollars, one tenth of which he 
said "inured to our benefit, and the remainder was simply 
waste and destruction. " Savannah was captured after an 
eight days' siege. From that place he sent the following 
dispatch to President Lincoln: "I beg to present to you, 
as a Christmas gift, the city of Savannah, with one 
hundred and fifty heavy guns and plenty of ammuni- 
tion, and also about twenty-five thousand bales of cot- 
ton." At Savannah Sherman's army went into winter 
quarters. 

Hood's Tennessee campaign. — In the meantime Hood 
was defeated at the battle of Franklin, but continued his 
advance on Nashville, where Thomas quietly awaited 
him. When the Confederate forces failed to dislodge the 
Federals, Thomas ordered his men forward, took Hood by 
surprise, and totally defeated him, dispersing the whole 
army (December, 1864). In a sense this was the most 



390 OUR REPUBLIC 

decided Federal victory in the war; for it was the only 
one in which the Confederate army was so put to rout that 
it could not be led off in an orderly retreat. 

Federal victories on the sea. — In June, 1864, the Con- 
federate cruiser Alabarna was defeated and sunk by the 
Kearsarge off the coast of France (page 358). In August 
of the same year, Admiral Farragut captured Mobile 
Bay, which was the most important harbor on the Gulf 
Coast left to the Confederacy, As this port had been a 
safe retreat for blockade runners, its capture was a great 
loss. In December, 1864, Admiral Porter began an at- 
tack on Fort Fisher, which guarded Wilmington, North 
Carolina. Its fall (January 15, 1865) closed the last port 
through which the Confederacy could reach the outside 
world. This completed the blockade proclaimed by 
Lincoln at the outbreak of the war. By the end of 1864 
Charleston and Wilmington were the only important Con- 
federate ports that had not fallen, but they were so strong- 
ly blockaded by Federal gunboats, that blockade runners 
could not get through. 

CHAPTER XCIV 

THE WAR IN 1864— CAMPAIGNS IN VIRGINIA 

Plan for capturing Richmond. — At the opening of the 
year 1864, Grant devised a plan by which two armies were 
to advance on the Confederate capital. While he was 
to move toward Richmond from the north. General B. F. 
Butler was to approach that city by way of the James 
River. 

Battles in Spotsylvania County. — With a well-equipped 
army of a hundred and twenty thousand men Grant 




A Group of Federal Generals 



George H. Thomas 
George B. McClellan 
Don Carlos Buell 



William S. Rosecrans 
William T, Sherman 



Joseph Hooker 
Philip H. Sheridan 
George G. Meade 



1864— CAMPAIGNS IN VIRGINIA 



391 



crossed the Rapidan River in May, 1864, to attack Lee's 
ragged and half-starved army of less than sixty thousand 
men. Lee's men fought so bravely that Grant was repulsed 
in a terrible two days' conflict known as the Battle of 
the Wilderness. But the Federal army was so large that 
it gradually pushed around the wing of the Confederate 
army and forced Lee to fall back to Spotsylvania Court 
House. Here, however, Grant's army was again defeated 
with heavy losses. At one time in this battle General 
Lee started to lead the advance 
in person, but his men refused 
to move unless he went back be- 
yond the danger line. At a point 
known as the ''death angle," men 
fought from "the top of heaps 
of dead men till their 
own bodies were add- 
ed to the pile, and 
others came to take 
their places." It is 
said that a tree nearly 
two feet in diameter 
was cut down by mus- 
ket balls and that ''not a tree or a sapling was left alive 
and standing." While the armies were struggling in 
. Spotsylvania County, a party of Federals on a raid tried 
to reach Richmond. General J. E. B. Stuart intercepted 
them and drove them back. But the gallant Stuart lost 
his life. He was succeeded, as Lee's cavalry commander, 
by General Wade Hampton of South Carolina. 

Battles around Richmond and Petersburg. — Lee with- 
drew to Cold Harbor, about thirty miles north of Rich- 




ViRGiNiA Campaign of 1864-65 



392 OUR REPUBLIC 

mond. Grant tried to penetrate the Confederate center, 
with the disastrous result that in about ten minutes he lost 
over twelve thousand men. Grant then swung around the 
Confederate army and crossed the James River, with the 
intention of attacking Richmond from the south; but he 
found himself before the strong fortifications at Petersburg. 
He attempted to take that city by means of a mine, which 
he tunneled under a Confederate fort. When Grant 
attempted to march his forces into the city through the 
crater that had been made by the explosion of this mine, 
he lost between three and four thousand men. It is 
estimated that from May, 1864, to the end of the year, 
Cirant lost in killed, wounded, and missing over one 
hundred and thirty thousand men — more than twice as 
many men as Lee had in his whole army. 

Throughout the autumn of 1864 he kept his army 
around Petersburg and Richmond, besieging those two 
cities. He also extended his lines to the south so as to cut 
off the railroad connections into North Carolina, by means 
of which Lee s army had received much of its provisions. 

Success of Magruder and Early. — Butler had advanced 
up the southern bank of the James River to attack 
Richmond. But he got no farther than the mouth of 
the Appomattox River, where, to use Grant's expres- 
sion, he was ''bottled-up" by the Confederates. 

While these events were taking place around Richmond, 
the Federals, first under Sigel, then under Hunter, came up 
the Shenandoah valley for the purpose of cutting off Lee's 
supplies from that source and approaching Richmond. 
Every effort was made to keep the Federals back, and ' 
even the students of the Virginia Military Institute were 
led out to battle. Finally, General Jubal A. Early drove 



1864— CAMPAIGNS IN VIRGINIA 393 

the Federals over the mountains into West Virginia. 
Early then made a bold dash at Washington, defeating the 
Federals at Monocacy (Md.), and got within sight 
of the dome of the Capitol, but was forced to retreat. 

Sheridan's raid. — Grant sent Sheridan into the Shenan- 
doah valley with instructions to make it a "barren 
waste." He burned two thousand barns filled with grain, 




Cadets of the Virginia Military Institute at the Battle 
OF New Market, Virginia 

and seventy mills filled with flour and wheat, and cap- 
tured four thousand head of cattle. He was surprised 
by Early at Cedar Creek, near Winchester, and lost 
about five thousand men, which was about one thou- 
sand more than the Confederate general had in his com- 
mand. But Sheridan rallied his fleeing men and drove 
Early from the Shenandoah valley. 



394 OUR REPUBLIC 

CHAPTER XCV 

LINCOLN REELECTED— PRISONERS OF WAR 

Political conditions in 1864. — As the war continued, 
political parties again developed in the North. One of 
them, the Union Party, was composed of Republicans 
and ''War Democrats" who supported the war policy of 
President Lincoln. The other embraced the Democrats 
who opposed either the war or the Emancipation Procla- 
mation. The latter party insisted that it stood for the 
''Constitution as it is and the Union as it was." 

Lincoln renominated. — The Union Convention met in 
Baltimore, and on the first ballot renominated Lincoln 
for the Presidency. It nominated for Vice President 
Andrew Johnson, a "War Democrat" from Tennessee. 
The Radical Republicans nominated General Fremont for 
the Presidency, but their plans were thwarted by his final 
withdrawal from the race. The homely expression of 
Lincoln that it was "not best to swap horses when cross- 
ing a stream" was effective in the campaign. 

The Democrats nominate McClellan. — The Democratic 
Convention met in Chicago and nominated General 
George B. McClellan for the Presidency on a platform 
which declared that the war had been a failure ; also that 
Lincoln had violated the Constitution, had used the army 
to control elections, and had shamefully disregarded the 
sufferings of the Union soldiers in Southern prisons. But 
in accepting the nomination McClellan declared that the 
war had not been a failure and should be prosecuted. 

Lincoln Reelected. — Fremont's withdrawal and McClel- 
lan's declaration that the war was not a failure gave 



1864— LINCOLN REELECTED 395 

assurances of Lincoln's success. Just before the day of 
the election Federal successes all along the line of battle 
indicated that the Confederate Government would soon 
fall. The soldiers everywhere voted for Lincoln; and 
he carried every State in the Union except New Jersey, 
Delaware, and Kentucky. Lincoln's second inaugura- 
tion took place on March 4, 1865. 

Prisoners of war. — In the second year of the conflict 
(July, 1862) both sides signed an agreement to release on 
parole all prisoners taken in war. As the Confederates 
had more prisoners than the Federals in the first part of 
the war, this agreement was advantageous to the Union; 
but after the summer of 1863 conditions were reversed. 
The Federals, insisting that the slaves were free, urged 
the exchange of negro troops who had enlisted in the 
Northern army. This ended the exchange agreement. 
An effort was made by the Confederates in August, 1864, 
to exchange ''officer for officer and man for man"; but 
the offer was declined by General Grant. He said: ''It 
is hard on our men held in Southern prisons not to ex- 
change them, but it is humanity to those left in the ranks 
to fight our battles. If we hold those caught, they 
amount to no more than dead men." As a result South- 
ern men were confined in twenty prisons in the North, 
some of which were in charge of negroes; and the few 
prisons belonging to the Confederacy were overcrowded 
with Federal captives. It is estimated that over twenty- 
six thousand Confederates died in Northern prisons; and 
over twenty-two thousand Federals, in Southern prisons. 



596 



OUR REPUBLIC 



CHAPTER XCVI 

THE WAR IN 1865— THE CONFEDERACY OVERCOiME 

Plan of campaign. — The next movement of the Federal 
army was to continue Sherman's raid from Savannah 
through the Carolinas, with a view to joining Grant against 
Lee. In the meantime Grant was to continue his effort 
to get in the rear of Lee's army by a flank movement. 




Fort Sumter at the Close of the War 

Joseph E. Johnston was placed in command of a Con- 
federate force in the Carolinas with instructions to op- 
pose Sherman's advance, while Lee continued to defend 
Richmond. But sickness and hunger reduced the effective- 
ness of the Confederate army. Their ranks grew thinner 
and thinner; and at the time for renewing the spring 
campaign in 1865, Lee had only about thirty-five thousand 
men with which to oppose a well-supplied Federal army 
of over one hundred and fifty thousand soldiers. When 
Grant's flank movements south of Petersburg threatened 



1865— THE CONFEDERACY OVERCOME 397 

to cut off the only remaining source of Confederate sup- 
plies and to seize the only route of retreat, Lee wished 
to abandon Petersburg and Richmond, march southward 
to help Johnston against Sherman, and then unite the 
two armies against Grant. This plan had to be aban- 
doned because of the inability of his half-starved horses to 
pull his cannon and wagons over the roads that had been 
softened by the winter rains. 

Sherman in the Carolinas. — Sherman left Savannah to 
continue his destructive raid, February 1, 1865. He 
captured and burned Columbia, the capital of South 
Carolina (map, page 388). In reporting his march, he 
wrote : 

''As I anticipated, fire and smoke and complete destruction 
marked our pathway. . . . Not a thing has been left to eat 
in many cases; not a horse, or an ox, or a mule, to work with. 
... It was not the intention of the commanding officers that 
the poor people should thus be stripped. But unprincipled 
stragglers . . . show no mercy or heart." 

The Confederate forces quickly evacuated Charleston, 
and hastened to join Johnston in North Carolina. Into 
that State Sherman followed, and was confronted by 
Johnston ; but after some fighting he occupied Goldsboro, 
North Carolina, seizing the railroad that ran south from 
Richmond. This cut off for Lee the most effective way of 
escape southward. About two weeks later the news of 
Lee's final surrender caused Sherman to stop his prepara- 
tions for attacking Johnston, then at Raleigh, where he 
was hoping to be joined by Lee. 

Evacuation of Petersburg and Richmond. — The last 
act in the great struggle between Lee's force and Grant's 
began on April 1, 1865. In his efforts to meet a flank 



398 OUR REPUBLIC 

movement of Grant's army, Lee was forced to spread 
out his lines until in places his men were seven yards 
apart. Grant then attacked at Five Forks, near Peters- 
burg, a weak place in the Confederate hne. 

On the morning of this attack, as President Davis sat 
in his pew at church in Richmond, a Confederate soldier 
walked up the aisle and gave him a telegram. It was 
from General Lee, and contained the following words: 
''Richmond must be evacuated this evening." That 
night Lee withdrew his army from the city, and on the 
following day it was entered by the Federal troops. 

General Lee made repeated attempts to reach John- 
ston's army in North Carolina, but found it impossible 
to cope with the overwhelming forces that were pressing 
him on every side. He then realized that a continuation 
of the bloody struggle would be useless. 

The Surrender at Appomattox. — Grant and Lee met in 
a residence near Appomattox Court House to arrange the 
terms of the surrender. After the two great commanders 
had shaken hands and taken their seats, they spent a few 
minutes in general conversation. General Lee then 
asked for the terms of surrender. General Grant re- 
plied that the army should lay down arms and not take 
them up again during the war. 

The terms were quickly written out and signed by Lee, 
no mention being made of the surrender of side arms or 
private property belonging to the Confederates. Grant, 
realizing that the Confederates would need their horses 
'' to put in a crop to carry them and their families through 
the next winter," instructed his officers ''to let every man 
of the Confederate army who claimed to own a horse or 
mule take the animal to his home." Lee then said that 




Robert Edward Lee 

From a negative made during the War of Secession 

in the possession of H. P. Cook, Richmond, Virginia. 

Pronounced by a member of his family as the best picture of General Lee. 



1865— THE CONFEDERACY OVERCOME 399 

his men had been hving for some days on parched corn 
exclusively, and that he would have to ask for food for 
them. This request met with a prompt and favorable 
response. 

When General Lee's faithful soldiers saw that the end 
had come, they were overcome with grief. To his soldiers 
Lee said : ''Men, we have fought through the war together. 
I have done the best I could for you. My heart is too 
full to say more. "^ On the following day (April 10, 
1865) General Lee issued his farewell address to his army 
and returned to Richmond. 

Two weeks later Johnston surrendered to Sherman, and 
with the final surrender of Kirby Smith in Texas (May 
26, 1865) the last of the Confederate forces gave up the 
conflict. 

Assassination of President Lincoln. — While the North 
was still rejoicing over Lee's surrender, the whole country 
was shocked to hear of the assassination of President 
Lincoln. He was shot in his box at Ford's Theater in 
Washington (April 14, 1865) by an actor, John Wilkes 
Booth, who thought that this wicked deed would be a 
great service to the South. Lincoln died on the follow- 
ing day. Booth escaped into Virginia, where he was 
finally killed. 

' The parting scene between General Lee and his army was pathetic 
beyond description. We are told that when he appeared among his men, 
"every hat was raised, and the bronzed faces of the thousands of grim 
warriors were bathed with tears. As he rode slowly along the lines, 
hundreds of his devoted veterans pressed around the noble chief, trying to 
take his hand, touch his person, or even lay a hand upon his horse. The 
General then, with head bare and tears flowing freely down his manly 
cheeks, bade adieu to the army. In a few words he told the brave men 
who had been so true in arms to return to their homes and become worthy 
citizens." 



400 OUR REPUBLIC 

The sudden and unexpected death of President Lin- 
cohi removed from the head of the Government the best 
friend of the bleeding South. At the time of his assassi- 
nation he was engaged upon the consideration of a plan 
for a speedy return of the seceded States to the Union. 

Capture of President Davis. — After the surrender of 
General Johnston, President Davis was captured in 
southern Georgia (May 10, 1865). He was carried to 
Fortress Monroe, where he w^as detained in prison for 
two years under an indictment for treason. He was 
finally released on bail, and a little later the trial was 
abandoned. During the greater part of his imprison- 
ment he was harshly treated, irons being at one time 
placed on his ankles. These sufferings greatly increased 
the love that the people of the South already felt for 
their great chieftain. 

CHAPTER XCVII 

SOME FACTS ABOUT THE WAR 

The enlistments of the war. — When the end of the 
struggle came, the Union army contained over a million 
soldiers, and the Confederate army about one hundred 
thousand. All told, the Union had in its service during 
the war over two million, three hundred thousand men; 
the Confederacy about six hundred thousand. In short, 
the North had nearly four times as many soldiers as 
had the South. When Lee started for Appomattox, 
his force numbered only about thirty-five thousand men ; 
and when he surrendered, less than twenty-nine thou- 
sand men and boys were paroled by Grant. The Union 
navy closed the war with seven hundred vessels, of which 



SOME FACTS ABOUT THE WAR 401 

sixty were ironclad. It was at this time the most power- 
ful navy in the world. 

In this desperate war over twenty-two hundred engage- 
ments were fought. The losses of the four years in 
killed and wounded on the battlefield were appalling; 
but the losses from diseases contracted by exposure 
and army life were even greater. The total deaths 
amounted to about three hundred and sixty thousand 
Federals and three hundred and twenty-five thousand 
Confederates. It may be safely stated that over a million 
men lost their lives by the war.^ 

Property losses. — ;The entire loss of the war in money 
and.property is beyond computation. 

The' Federal Government spent seven billions one 
hundred and eighty millions of dollars actually paid into 
the treasury for war purposes. In addition to this, two 
billions eight hundred millions of dollars were collected 
by the sale of bonds. The debts of the Northern States 
and cities were increased, and the pensions of disabled 
soldiers multiplied. In view of these facts the war must 
have cost the Federal Government not less than twelve 
billions of dollars. 

The cost of the war to the South cannot even be approx- 
imated. There are no figures as to money actually 
spent by the Confederate Government, and it is impossi- 
ble to tell how much was raised by bond issues and Con- 
federate notes, all of which became worthless. - 

Toward the close of the war, instead of trying to buy 
supplies and stores, the Confederate Government required 
all the farmers in the South to contribute one tenth of 

1 As has been fitly said, "The blood of the Nation was lastingly impover- 
ished by that awful hemorrhage." 



402 OUR REPUBLIC 

their produce for the support of the army; so that they 
levied a tax in kind. But this in no way hghtened the 
expense of the Confederacy to the people of the South; 
for, as a rule, the men of the army practically supported 
themselves, receiving provisions and clothes from their 
homes. The destruction of property was appalling, to 
say nothing of the loss from the emancipation of four 




The Mansion at Lowek Brandon on the James Hiver 

Around the door the wall is riddled with bullet holes. Typical of the least of 

the war's damages in the South. 

million slaves, who at a conservative estimate were worth 
at least ten billions of dollars. It seems very probable 
that the loss of the South in the war was at least twice 
as much as that of the North. 

Right views of the conflict. — The war settled two im- 
portant questions in American history: 

1. The abolition of slavery. Though the first effort 
to free the slaves was made by proclamation as a war 
measure, the slaves were finally freed in a Constitutional 



SACRIFICES AND MAKESHIFTS OF THE WAR 403 

way. This was by the ratification of the Thirteenth 
Amendment in 1865. The whole country now rejoices 
over the removal of this great evil, which had been forced 
upon the South in colonial times. 

2. The right of secession also was settled by the war. 
This was a natural result of the conflict, since the North 
fought to preserve the Union and won in the conflict. 

Let no child who studies American history be ashamed 
of the part that his ancestors may have played in this 
memorable struggle. If he is a Southerner, let him be 
proud of his country. Let him feel that his ancestors 
were not traitors; for they fought for the Constitution as 
they understood it, and for State sovereignty as it was 
generally accepted at the time of the formation of the 
Union. They fought for a principle which they believed 
to be right, and which was finally destroyed by the power 
of armies. On the other hand, let every Northern child 
be proud of the part that his ancestors may have taken 
toward the preservation of the Union. It was a struggle 
which meant that the United States should not be divided 
in such a way that its influence would be lost in the 
history of the world. 

There were incidents connected with the conduct of 
this terrible war, which one must condemn as harsh and 
even cruel ; but they must not be cherished as representing 
the spirit of either side. 

CHAPTER XCVIII 

SACRIFICES AND MAKESHIFTS OF THE WAR 

Military equipments. — The problem of arming and 
equipping the Southern armies was a serious one, since 
the South had few implements of warfare and little means 




404 OUR REPUBLIC 

of making them. Plantations and churches gave up their 
bells to be cast into cannon. The women of the Con- 
federacy undertook to provide material for building iron- 
clad ships by collecting broken pots, pans, and kettles. 
We are told that in the time of extreme need "the women 

even offered the hair of 
their heads to be sold 
abroad for arms." 

Clothing. — P e r h a p s 
the most important ser- 

An Old Blunderbus Pistol Used by . i i i > i 

A Confederate Soldier VlCC rendered by the 

women of the Con- 
federacy was that of supplying clothing for use at home 
and in the armies. ''The hum of the wheel and the thump 
of the loom were almost as ceaseless as the tick of the 
clock," Amid the enthusiasm of the earlier days of the war 
silk dresses had been converted into battle flags; woolen 
dresses and shawls were then used for making shirts for the 
soldiers; and carpets, for blankets. Linen curtains, sheets, 
and tablecloths were used for making lint and bandages for 
the wounded. These sacrifices reduced the home ward- 
robes to nothing. The dresses of the women were made of 
homespun. Buttons were made of wood. Hats were 
made of straw or palmetto leaves. As the supply of 
leather was exhausted, shoes were made either entirely of 
wood or of cloth fastened to wooden soles. 

Food supply. — Confederate money depreciated so in 
value that $60 of it were worth only $1 in gold. Often a 
barrel of flour sold for $250 of Confederate mone}^ Salt 
''was the most precious of all commodities," and at times 
it could not be bought at any price. In one instance 
thirty teacups of salt were given for thirty cords of wood. 



SACRIFICES AND MAKESHIFTS OF THE WAR 405 

Meal sold for $50, corn for $40, and oats for $25 a busheL 
Beans were quoted at $50 and black-eyed peas at $45 a 
bushel. Brown sugar sold for $10; while coffee and tea 
brought $12 and $35 a pound, respectively. Bits of sweet 
potatoes, corn, rye, and okra seed well parched, or burnt 
molasses, were used as substitutes for coffee. Peanuts or 
''goobers" were parched, ground, and used as chocolate. 
Dried raspberry leaves or sage leaves were used for making 
tea. In some places honey was used instead of sugar or 
molasses in preserving fruit. Soda was often made from 
the ashes of corncobs. The earthen floors of old smoke- 
houses were dug up; and, by a process of leaching and 
boiling, the accumulation of salt from the drippings 
of meat in former years was extracted for table use. A 
lady who experienced these privations said, ''In every 
emergency there was one unfailing resource — if we could 
not find a substitute for any article, we could do without 
it; and this we did, with a fortitude born of the times." 

Paper and stationery. — With the continuance of the 
blockade, printing paper became so scarce that most of the 
newspapers were reduced to half their usual size. At times 
they were forced to print the news on wall paper. As the 
type was badly worn and the ink was of an inferior quahty, 
the papers did not present an attractive appearance. 

A Southern gentleman tells us: 

" Every available bit of paper, every page of old account 
books whether already written on one side or not, and even 
the fly leaves of printed volumes . . . [were] ferreted out and 
exhausted. Envelopes were made of scraps of wall paper 
and from the pictorial pages of old books, the white side out, 
stuck together in some cases with the gum that exudes from 
peach trees." 



406 OUR REPUBLIC 

Results of the surrender. — ^There is no experience like 
the death of one's nation. A Mississippi lady says: 

" When the news came suddenly that our country was dead, 
a deep hush fell into our lives, a wordless grief settled on our 
hearts, a dark foreboding clouded the future. . . . One glint 
of brightness came to us even in this dark time. The ever- 
present and all-pervading anxiety concerning the soldiers 
was ended. They were coming home to stay. The joyous 
welcome to the returning ones was subdued b}- the intense 
longing for those who would never come." 

The effect upon the Confederate soldiers was forcibly 
told by Henry W. Grady, the great Georgia orator: 

" Let me picture to you the foot-sore Confederate soldier, 
as ... he turned his face southward from Appomattox in 
April, 1865. Think of him as ragged, half-starved, heavy- 
hearted, enfeebled by want and wounds. . . . He surrenders 
his gun, wrings the hands of his comrades in silence, pulls the 
gray cap over his brow and begins the slow and painful journey. 
. . . What does he find when he reaches the home he left 
so prosperous and beautiful? He finds his house in ruins, 
his farm devastated, his slaves free, his stock killed, his barns 
empty, his trade destroyed, his money worthless ... his 
people without law . . . without money, credit, employment, 
material, or training; and besides all this, confronted with the 
gravest problem that ever met human intelligence . . . his 
Uberated slaves. 

" What does he do — this hero in gray with a heart of gold? 
Does he sit down in suUenness and despair? The soldier stepped 
from the trenches into the furrow; horses that had charged 
Federal guns marched before the plow, and the fields that ran 
red with human blood in April were green with the harvest 
in June." 



VIII. PERIOD OF NATIONAL 
DEVELOPMENT 

CHAPTER XCIX 

THE PROBLEM OF RECONSTRUCTION 
Johnson's Administration, 1865-69 

National questions. — The downfall of the Confederacy 
brought forward several important questions which re- 
quired immediate settlement. The most important of 
these were: (1) How should the Southern white people be 
treated? (2) What should be done with the negroes? 
(3) How should the seceded States be regarded? About 
these three questions turns the whole history of Recon- 
struction. 

Treatment of the white people. — As far as the Southern 
soldiers were concerned, it was evident that most of them 
could not be punished in any way for their part in the 
war; for they were protected by the terms of the sur- 
render. There was, however, much discussion in the 
North as to what punishment should be imposed upon 
the officers of the Confederate Government. But the 
only person who was held for trial was President Davis, 
and the case against him was dropped in 1869. Several 
members of his Cabinet and a number of the Southern 
governors also were imprisoned, but were soon released. 

407 



408 OUR REPUBLIC 

Rights of the negroes. — After the beginning of the war, 
slavery in the border States was abolished by the States 
themselves; in the Territories by Congress; and in most of 
the South by the Emancipation Proclamation, supple- 
mented by the Thirteenth Amendment. This Amend- 
ment passed Congress in 1865 and was ratified by the 
States before the close of the year. The slaves were free, 
but the question of the position of the freedmen before the 
law still remained to be settled. 

Relation of the Southern States to the Union. — The 
most important question of all was that of the relation of 
the Southern States to the Union. Were they still in the 
Union? Or had they, as the Southern people had said, 
seceded? The theory of the North, throughout the war, 
had been that the States could not secede ; but a new view 
of the case was generally accepted by the North when the 
war closed. Four theories were advanced on the subject: 
(1) The ''Presidential" theory, held by President Lin- 
coln; by his successor, President Johnson; and by the 
Southern people when they accepted the results of the 
war, which was that the States were still in the Union and 
that, as soon as they had complied w^ith certain condi- 
tions, they would be entitled to representation in Con- 
gress and the direction of their own governments. (2) The 
''State-suicide" theory, advanced by Senator Sumner, ^ 

' Charles Sumner was born in Boston, Massachusetts, on January 6, 
1811. He was educated at Harvard and became a hiwyer and writer. 
He served for many years in the United States Senate and had a powerful 
influence, being a man of ability, although conceited and prejudiced to 
a great degree. He was the chief advocate in the Senate of a harsh 
policy toward the South and attempted by law to make the negroes the 
legal, social, and political equal of the white people. He died March 11, 
1874. 



THE PROBLEM OF RECONSTRUCTION 409 

which held that the States had by secession lost statehood 
and were only Territories. (3) The '' conquered-province " 
theory of Thaddeus Stevens, which regarded the South as 
a province subjugated by war and subject to the will of 
the conquerors. (4) The ''forfeited-rights" theory, which 
was that the States were still a part of the Union, but 
had lost part of their rights. This was the one finally 
adopted. 

Lincoln's efforts to restore Southern States to the Union. — 
President Lincoln in 1863 issued a proclamation which 
provided that when one tenth of the voters in any South- 
ern State should take the oath of allegiance to the United 
States, they could set up a State government which he 
would recognize, and that they could send representa- 
tives to Congress. Citizens of Louisiana, Tennessee, and 
Arkansas accepted these terms; but Congress would not 
recognize them, receive their representatives, or count 
their vote for President in the election of 1864. This 
disagreement between Congress and the President was 
not settled when Lincoln was assassinated and Johnson 
became President. 

President Johnson ^ was a Southerner, but had refused 
to go with his State when it seceded. He had been mili- 

' Andrew Johnson was born in Raleigh, North Carolina, December 29, 
1808. He was for some years a tailor in Raleigh and then moved to Green- 
ville, Tennessee, where he worked at his trade and entered politics. He 
served in both houses of the Tennessee Legislature and as a member 
of Congress. He was then elected Governor of the State and at the close 
of his second term became United States Senator. He refused to go 
with his State when it seceded, and at the expiration of his term as Senator 
he became military governor of Tennessee. He was a man of natural 
ability and of sterling honesty and fearlessness in the performance of his 
duty ; but he had little tact and made very bitter enemies, especially during 
his administration as President. He died July 31, 1875. 



410 



OUR REPUBLIC 



tary governor of Tennessee and as a War Democrat had 
been elected Vice President. He was very bitter against 
the South, and it was feared even in the North that he 
would be too severe. He, however, followed in the foot- 
steps of his great predecessor and tried to bring about a 
lasting peace between the sections. 

Johnson's plan. — Johnson promptly issued an amnesty 
proclamation that had been prepared by Lincoln, but al- 
tered it so as to exclude a larger 
number of persons from its bene- 
fits. He issued also proclama- 
tions appointing new governors 
for the Southern States and di- 
recting that they should establish 
temporary State governments, 
w^iich should declare the ordi- 
nances of secession null and void, 
abolish slavery, and repudiate 
the debts incurred in carrying on 
the war. 

The work of setting up new 
governments was pushed forward, not only by the Presi- 
dent, but by the people of the South who were anxious to see 
order brought back so that they might begin to repair their 
ruined fortunes. The commerce of the South was resumed, 
the mails were carried, taxes collected, and the courts 
opened. The conventions met and provided for setting up 
permanent governments. This was done so promptly that 
when Congress met in December, 1865, representatives and 
senators were there from every Southern State except Texas. 
Radical opposition. — In the meantime opposition to the 
President's plan of restoring the States to the Union was 




Andri. \\ .ImiinsuN 



THE PROBLEM OF RECONSTRUCTION 411 

growing rapidly in the North. By the time Congress met, 
there were many who beheved that the Southern States 
should not be restored until something had been done to 
protect the freedmen from the harsh laws that might be 
made by these States. Others wanted to see the South 
punished, and many were even afraid that the Democrats 
would make their way back into power. Congress there- 
fore refused to admit the senators and representatives 
from the South, and thus took the question of Recon- 
struction into its own hands. 

The " Black Codes." — In the South the people were striv- 
ing to settle satisfactorily one of the most difficult prob- 
lems that any people had ever faced. Four million slaves 
had become freedmen and were, theoretically at least, in- 
dependent. Their freedom had been recognized by a 
great majority of the Southern people, who did not care to 
bring slavery back. But the negroes were still dependent 
upon the white people; for they had never had any op- 
portunity to learn how to take care of themselves. In 
many cases they refused to work, and were becoming 
burdensome to the white people and the States. Vagrancy 
laws w^ere therefore passed to make them find employ- 
ment. Nearly all these laws were copied from those of 
Northern States. They declared that people who would 
not w^ork for wages could be fined and forced to work out 
the fine. 

To the North, ignorant of the true condition of affairs 
and prejudiced in favor of the negroes, these laws, or 
"Black Codes," as they were called, seemed unjust and 
like a return to slavery. Congress therefore determined 
to take some action that would protect the negroes. 



412 OUR REPUBLIC 

CHAPTER C 

CONGRESSIONAL RECONSTRUCTION 

Johnson's Administration, 1865-69 

The Freedman's Bureau. — The Freedman's Bureau was 
established in 1865. This bureau was under the control 
of the army. It protected many negroes in their rights, 
cared for their sick, and furnished food and clothing to the 
paupers. Yet it did much harm; it made the negroes 
look to the Government for support; it caused them to 
want to hold office; and it made them dislike the white 
people in the South, among whom they had to live and 
upon whom they were dependent. Some men connected 
with the bureau made thousands of the negroes believe 
that the United States was going to give to each one of 
them ''forty acres and a mule, " and many waited for the 
gift instead of going to work. 

The Civil Rights Bill; the Fourteenth Amendment. — 
Early in 1866 (April 9th) the Civil Rights Bill was passed 
by Congress over the President's veto. This declared the 
negroes to be citizens and put them under Federal pro- 
tection as far as their rights of citizenship were concerned. 
As this did not appear sufficient, the Fourteenth Amend- 
ment was then passed; and the lately seceded States were 
required to accept it before they could have place again 
in the Union. This amendment made the negroes citizens 
of the United States. It tried to force the States to 
give them, the right to vote, by providing that whenever a 
State refused to allow negroes to vote, it should have 
fewer representatives in Congress. It also prohibited 



CONGRESSIONAL RECONSTRUCTION 413 

nearly all of the Southern leaders from holding office 
without a special act of Congress. 

Tennessee was the only Southern State that accepted 
this amendment at first (1866). Her representatives 
were at once admitted to Congress. The States that re- 
fused to accept the amendment had to face still more 
severe conditions. 

Quarrel of the President and Congress. — The President 
and Congress were now openly and bitterly hostile. 
Johnson angered the leaders in Congress by speaking 
harshly of them in his speeches. He hoped to arouse the 
people and defeat the radicals, as the extreme Republicans 
were called. But his hope was vain, as the elections of 1866 
gave the radicals a two-thirds majority in Congress, and 
made it possible for them to override him in everything. 

The Reconstruction Acts. — In March, 1867, Congress 
passed the Tenure-of-Office Act, which limited the 
President in his power of removing from office. . It then 
passed the first Reconstruction Act, ^ which divided the 
ten Southern States into five military districts, and placed 
each district under the command of a general of the United 
States army, whose duty it was to reconstruct the States 
in his district. The right to vote was denied to every man 
who had served the Confederacy after having taken, as 
an officeholder, an oath to support the Constitution of the 
United States. At the same time, in direct violation of 
the constitutions and laws of the States, and without any 
authority from the Constitution of the United States, 
all the negroes were allowed to vote. No attention was 
paid to the fact that in some of the Northern States the 
ballot had not been given to negroes. 

1 Two other Reconstruction Acts were passed later. 



414 OUR REPUBLIC 

Conventions were then called to make new constitu- 
tions which had to guarantee to the negroes of all the 
Southern States equal rights with the white people. The 
constitution of each State had to be accepted by a majority 
of its voters, and the first Legislature of each State had to 
ratify the Fourteenth Amendment. If these conditions 
were fully met, the State would be allowed representation 
in Congress and the control of its own government. The 
men most responsible for these severe and unjustifiable 
acts of Congress were Thaddeus Stevens ^ and Charles 
Sumner. Stevens wanted to punish the South and 
strengthen the Republican Party; Sumner desired to 
make the negroes the political and social equals of the 
Southern white people. 

Southern Reconstruction. — The conventions in nearly 
all the States were under the control of negroes and 
Northern white men who had come South to grow rich. 
These white men were known as "carpetbaggers," be- 
cause it was said that they had no more property than they 
could bring in a carpetbag. In several States the negroes 
had clear majorities. The old constitutions were set aside ; 
and new ones, like those of Northern States, were adopted. 

Readmission of States. — By July, 1868, six States — 
North Carolina, South Carolina, Florida, ^ Alabama, 

1 Thaddeus Stevens was born in Vermont on April 4, 1792. He graduated 
at Dartmouth College and moved to Pennsylvania, where he became a 
lawyer. He served in the State Legislature and Constitutional Convention, 
and was for many years a member of Congress. He died August 11, 1868. 
He was a man of ability, but was bitterly partisan and was particularly 
hostile to the South. He was the leader of the radicals in Congress and 
more than any other man was responsible for the harshness of Recon- 
struction. 

* A graphic account of the Florida Convention, which was presided 
over by a carpetbagger and composed principally of negroes, is given 



CONGRESSIONAL RECONSTRUCTION 415 

Louisiana, and Arkansas — had met the conditions im- 
posed by Congress and been restored to the Union. 
Virginia, Mississippi, and Texas at first refused to adopt 
new constitutions and were not admitted until 1870. 
Georgia adopted a constitution, but would not allow ne- 
groes to hold office. After being twice refused represen- 
tation in Congress, that State finally met the conditions 
and was restored to the Union in 1871. But in the mean- 
time the Fifteenth Amendment, intended to guarantee to 
negroes the right to vote, had been passed (1869) by Con- 
gress ; and these last four States were required to ratify this 
as well as the Fourteenth Amendment before they were 
admitted. In 1868, the Fourteenth Amendment was 
declared adopted, and in 1870, the Fifteenth Amendment. 
No other amendments have since been added to the 
Constitution. 

Impeachment of President Johnson. — The radicals had 
viewed President Johnson with suspicion for some time, 
fearing that he was going to interfere with Reconstruction. 

by one of its members, a negro, from whose writings the following extract 
is taken: "Some of the lesser lights, . . . who could neither read nor write, 
would be seen with both feet thrown across their desks, smoking cigars, 
while the convention was in session, and would often address the Presi- 
dent: 'I rize to a pint off orter and deman' that the pages and Mess'gers 
put some jinal on my des.' The President would draw a long sigh and 
order journals to be carried and laid upon the desks of these eminent 
statesmen, who would seize them and go through the motions of reading 
them, perhaps upside down. . . . These ridiculous scenes continued for two 
weeks or more, when a portion of the members seceded, leaving the con- 
vention without a quorum. 

"On Monday, February 10th, between twelve and one o'clock at night, 
the seceding delegates . . . returned to Tallahassee in a body, broke into the 
Capitol, . . . and proceeded to reorganize the convention. This reorganized 
convention perfected the constitution under which the State entered the 
Union." 



416 OUR REPUBLIC 

As he vetoed every measure connected with the subject 
which came before him, their hatred of him was very in- 
tense and they commenced to plot his downfall. In 1867 
an attempt was made to impeach him, but the plan failed. 
In 1868, however, their opportunity came. The President 
and Edward M. Stanton, Secretary of War, were not on 
good terms; and finally the President asked for his resig- 
nation. Stanton was the spy of the radicals in the Cabinet 
and refused to resign. Johnson at once removed him. 
But the Senate, under the Tenure-of-Office Act (page 414), 
would not consent to his removal ; and he was reinstated . 
only to be again removed. Stanton declined to surrender 
his office; and before he could be forced out, the House of 
Representatives impeached the President for high crimes 
and misdemeanors. 

The impeachment trial was held, according to the Con- 
stitution, before the Senate with the Chief Justice of the 
Supreme Court presiding. After a long trial, marked 
by great partisanship, the President was acquitted, his 
enemies lacking only one vote of convicting him. 

CHAPTER CI 

FOREIGN AND DOMESTIC AFFAIRS 

Johnson's Administration, 1865-69 

The French in Mexico. — During the War of Secession 
Napoleon III of France, who was bent upon extending 
French influence, tried to set up in Mexico an empire 
dependent upon France. On the throne he placed Maxi- 
milian, Archduke of Austria, and established him in power 
by armed force and against the wish of the Mexicans. As 



FOREIGN AND DOMESTIC AFFAIRS 417 

soon as the war was over, the President turned his atten- 
tion to this open and direct violation of the Monroe Doc- 
trine (page 262) and forced the French to withdraw their 
troops. The empire at once fell, and Maximilian was cap- 
tured by the Mexicans and shot. 

The Atlantic Cable. — The Atlantic cable (page 326) was 
in 1866, after much discouragement to those promoting 
it, successfully laid and operated; and in consequence all 
parts of the world were benefited. 

Purchase of Alaska. — Before the end of the war Russia 
had offered to assist the United States in case any European 
power entered the conflict in behalf of the Confederacy. In 
1867 Secretary Seward concluded a treaty with Russia by 
which Alaska was ceded to the United States for $7,200,- 
000. This was so much more than it was thought to be 
worth that the valuation was generally considered a way 
of repaying Russia for her friendship when the nation was 
in distress. 

Admission of Nebraska. — With the close of the war many 
emigrants went west of the Mississippi River. By 1867 
the population of Nebraska had so increased that it was 
admitted to the Union, becoming the thirty-seventh State. 

Campaign of i868. — The campaign of 1868 had for its 
main issue whether the Congressional plan of Recon- 
struction should be continued. But there were several 
other important questions discussed as well. The Re- 
publicans indorsed the Reconstruction policy of Congress 
and favored the payment of United States bonds in gold. 
They nominated General U. S. Grant for President, and 
Schuyler Colfax of Indiana for Vice President. The Dem- 
ocrats denounced the Reconstruction measures and the 
way they had been carried out, demanded the complete 



418 OUR REPUBLIC 

pardon of all who had been connected with the Confeder- 
acy, and condemned the granting of public lands to rail- 
roads. This party nominated Horatio Seymour of New 
York for President, and General Frank P. Blair of Mis- 
souri for Vice President. 

The campaign was very exciting, but the Republicans 
were too strong and Grant too popular for the Democrats 
to make great headway. Grant was elected by a large 
majority. 

CHAPTER CII 

CONGRESSIONAL RECONSTRUCTION A FAILURE 
Granfs First Administration, 1869-73 

The Pacific Railroad. — Grant's ^ administration began 
when the country was at the high tide of the commercial 
and industrial activity that followed the war. The country 
was rapidly growing in population and wealth and enter- 
ing upon the wonderful industrial era that still continues. 

The year 1869 saw the Atlantic and Pacific coasts 
joined by the completion of the Union Pacific Railroad, 
which had been chartered by Congress in 1862. This was 
of immense importance in commercial development. 



* Ulysses Simpson Grant was born at Point Pleasant, Ohio, on April 
27, 1822. He was educated at West Point and entered the army. He 
served in the Mexican War with gallantry, but resigned and engaged 
in business. When the War of Secession commenced, he raised a com- 
pany of volunteers and rose to the chief command of the Union army. 
In 1866 he was raised to the full rank of General. In 1868 he was elected 
to the Presidency and served for two terms. In 1880 he was a candidate 
for the Republican nomination, but was defeated. He died July 23, 1885. 
He was a man of kindly and magnanimous nature and was popular with all 
classes and sections as a man and a soldier. He was a great general, but 
as President he was not a success. 



I 



CONGRESSIONAL RECONSTRUCTION A FAILURE 419 

The Geneva award.— In Grant's first term of office, the 
board of arbitration to which the Alabama claims (page 
358) had finally been referred met in Geneva to settle 
the question. The contention of the United States was 
acknowledged as valid, and England was forced to pay 
damages amounting to $15,000,000. 

At the same time, a long-standing dispute between the 
two countries on the subject of the boundary between 




Driving the Last Spike in the Laying of the Union 
Pacific Railroad 

the United States and British Columbia was referred to the 
Emperor of Germany and settled by him. This method 
of settling international disputes commends itself to the 
world more and more as time passes. 

Conditions in the South. — Although the North was 
prospering, the South had fallen on evil days. As a re- 
sult of Reconstruction nearly all the States had fallen 
completely into the hands of those least fitted by charac- 
ter and ability to govern. The leaders of the Republican 
Party in the South were the "carpetbaggers," and asso- 



420 OUR REPUBLIC 

ciated with them were two classes of native whites: (1) 
Those who had joined the Repubhcan Party from fear or 
with the hope of reward, called by their opponents ''scala- 
wags"; and (2) a much smaller number who, having op- 
posed secession, had become Republicans from conviction. 
Supporting these white leaders and controlled by them 
were the ignorant and misguided negroes who had been 
led to abandon their best friends, only to be betrayed by 
their supposed allies. The negroes were organized by the 
"carpetbaggers" into a society known as the ''Union 
League," which had been founded at the North before the 
close of the war to assist in preserving the Union. After 
the war it was brought South and used as a means of con- 
trolling the negro vote. Every community had one or 
more branches of the society; and they became centers of 
lawlessness, which made the negroes in the South danger- 
ous to peace and prosperity. 

Legislatures of Southern States. — In all the Southern 
States there were many negroes in the Legislature; in some 
States they were in a majority. As they were utterly un- 
fit to vote and entirely incapable of making proper laws, 
the results were not only disgusting, but tragic for the 
downtrodden South. The party in power was honey- 
combed with dishonesty, and official extravagance and 
corruption were general. Millions and millions of dollars 
were stolen or wasted ; the debt of the Southern States was 
increased by more than $150,000,000 through the issue of 
bonds for which the States received nothing; and taxation 
• was increased until it was ruinous. Life and property 
were not safe, and crime and violence of every sort in- 
creased rapidly. The negroes, having tasted of idleness, 
in many cases refused to work, or, if they consented, were 



CONGRESSIONAL RECONSTRUCTION A FAILURE 421 

likely to break their contracts. Conditions soon became 
so bad that had it not been for the power of the United 
States the disgraceful State governments would have 
been forcibly overthrown by the better class of citizens. 

The Ku Klux Klan. — The situation finally became un- 
bearable, and the white people of the South were driven 
in self-defense to take some decided steps to regain con- 
trol. In 1867 there appeared, first in Tennessee, and 
later all over the South, what was known as the Ku Klux 
Klan, or, as it was also called, ''The Invisible Empire," a 
secret organization used first for protection against vio- 
lence and later for political purposes. It was made up of 
small groups, or "dens " ; and no one but the leaders knew 
who were members of other dens. Long processions of 
white, shrouded figures on white-veiled horses, with hor- 
rible badges and mysterious signs and symbols, would 
suddenly appear and throw the negroes into an agony of 
superstitious terror. They visited evil-doers, white as 
well as black, with certain and severe punishment. 
Night after night they rode, seeking for those they had 
condemned, and carrying out their decisions even to ad- 
ministering at times the death penalty. By these means 
they did much to check the wrongs that the South was 
enduring. In the course of time reckless people were ad- 
mitted into the Klan and caused it to commit atrocities. 
The best men then withdrew from the Klan and helped 
to put it down. 

The "Force Acts." — The terror aroused by the Ku 
Klux, and the false accounts of its violence, which reached 
the North, led Congress to pass the " Force Acts." These 
put elections under the control of the Federal Govern- 
ment and provided severe punishment for interfering in 



422 OUR REPUBLIC 

any way with the negroes' voting, and furthermore al- 
lowed the President to suspend the writ of habeas corpus 
when he thought it necessary. The trouble continued, 
and Federal troops were sent to many parts of the South to 
preserve order. A large number of persons were arrested 
mid tried, and some were fined and imprisoned. 

Overthrow of Reconstruction. — By 1875 the native 
whites were in control of the governments in most of the 
Southern States, and the ''carpetbaggers" had been 
driven out. South Carolina, Florida, and Louisiana, how- 
ever, because of the interference of the Federal Govern- 
ment, were still in the hands of the Republicans ; and their 
situation was terrible beyond description. 

The campaign of 1872. — In 1872 there were signs of a 
serious division in the Republican Party. The Northern 
Democrats, who had acted with the Republicans during 
the war, now that the Union was safe, began to return to 
their own party. In addition many Republicans were 
dissatisfied with the administration of Grant because of 
the corruption that was beginning to appear, and were 
disgusted with the situation in the South. These classes 
united in what was called the Liberal Republican Party, 
which held a convention in Cincinnati in 1872. After 
adopting a platform demanding amnesty to the late Con- 
federates, universal suffrage, and the reform of the civil 
service, it nominated for President, Horace Greeley, the 
founder and editor of the New York Tribune, and for Vice 
President, B. Gratz Brown of Missouri. The Democratic 
Convention indorsed this platform and the candidates, 
hoping that by taking advantage of the division in the Re- 
publican Party it might defeat the Republican candidate. 

The Republicans nominated Grant for President, and 



A PERIOD OF DISTRESS AND CORRUPTION 423 

Henry Wilson of Massachusetts for Vice President. The 
Prohibitionists also put a ticket in the field, but the strug- 
gle was between Grant and Greeley. It was soon evident 
that the latter had no chance of winning; and when the 
election came off, he carried only six States. Broken 
down by disappointment and the labors of the campaign, 
and prostrated by the death of his wife, Greeley died be- 
fore the electors met. 



CHAPTER cm 

A PERIOD OF DISTRESS AND CORRUPTION 
Grant's Second Administration, 1873-77 

The panic of 1873. — Ever since the war there had been 
great commercial and industrial activity in the Northern 
and Western States, and business increased to such an ex- 
tent that it was more than the country could handle with 
its liixiited carrying facilities. As a result, over twenty- 
five thousand miles of railroads were built in four years, 
which was more than the population warranted. The 
prosperity of railroads depends largely upon the popula- 
tion of the territory through which they pass, and many 
of these roads went through parts of the country that were 
still only sparsely settled. To carry out these enterprises 
one hundred millions of dollars of greenbacks had been 
withdrawn from circulation, thus greatly reducing the 
supply of money. Another cause increased the shortage 
of money. In 1871 the imports of the country had so 
far exceeded the exports that over $50,000,000 in coin 
left the United States to pay foreign creditors. Fires in 



424 OUR REPUBLIC 

Chicago in 1871 and in Boston in 1872 had caused great 
losses. 

As a consequence of these conditions, business became 
unsettled; and when in September, 1873, the important 
firm of Jay Cooke & Co. failed, a great panic followed. 
During the next year ten thousand business houses failed 
to the amount of $225,000,000, and by the end of three 
years the amount had reached $775,000,000. The rail- 
road losses were probably even greater. The failure of 
the banks carried distress all over the country, and the 
shutting down of factories threw thousands of men out of 
employment and left them without means of support. 

Demonetization of silver. — In February, 1873, a law 
was passed that dropped the old silver dollar from the list 
of coins to be made at the mints free to those who sent 
the silver there for that purpose. As no silver dollars had 
been coined for a long time, and none were in circulation, 
nobody at that time objected to the change. But later, 
when the silver movement began, this act was called by 
some, ''the crime of '73." The gold dollar thus became 
the sole standard of value. Now only gold is coined at 
the mint ''free" to the owners of the metal. 

Scandals. — It became apparent that many members of 
Congress had been bribed by the Credit Mobilier, a cor- 
poration formed to build the Union Pacific Railroad. The 
Whisky Ring, too, was detected. It had been formed 
by Government officials and distillers, and had de- 
frauded the Government of many million dollars before 
it was discovered in 1875 and broken up.' A number of 
its leaders were tried and convicted. Secretary of War 
Belknap was impeached for corruption in office; but 
before he could be tried by the Senate, President Grant, 



A PERIOD OF DISTRESS AND CORRUPTION 425 



who was his warm friend, accepted his resignation, and 
the matter was dropped. Congress passed the ''Salary- 
Grab" Act by which the salaries of Congressmen and of 
certain high officials were raised from the beginning of 

their terms of 

office. Public -vsf' u - '.^ 

opinion was so 

aroused by this 

that the act was 

soon repealed. 

Finally, among 

the many charges 

brought against 

the President, 

was one that he 

had put many of 

his own relatives 

in office. 

Indian troubles. 
— The rapid set- 
tlement and de- 
velopment of the 
We st brought 
with it fresh 
troubles with the 
Indians. Those 
who had already been settled on reservations were 
cheated by the Government agents and treated very 
badly. Grant did something to improve Indian affairs, 
but it was too late to prevent two serious uprisings. The 
Modocs in Oregon, to avoid being sent to a new reser- 
vation, went on the warpath and murdered General 




Custer's Last Fight 



426 OUR REPUBLIC 

Canby. They were conquered later and sent to Indian 
Territory. In 1876 the Sioux Indians rose against settlers 
who had gone among them, seeking for gold. In the war 
that followed, General Custer was killed; and all his force, 
except one man, was destroyed by a band of Indians under 
Sitting Bull. After some time the Sioux were subdued and 
Sitting Bull fled to Canada. 

Elections of 1874. — The corruption in the Government 
and the panic of 1873 led to a Democratic victory in the 
elections of 1874, by which the House of Representatives 
had a Democratic majority of about seventy. 

Resumption of specie payments. — In 1875 Congress 
passed a law providing that after January 1, 1879, the 
Secretary of the Treasury should redeem in coin all paper 
money presented at the Treasury. Immediately paper 
money in circulation had an equal value with coin, and 
public confidence was greatly increased. 

Admission of Colorado; the Centennial Exposition. — 
In 1876 Colorado became the thirty-eighth State of the 
Union. The same year a great world's fair was held in 
Philadelphia to celebrate the one hundredth anniversary 
of the signing of the Declaration of Independence. Nearly 
all the States and many foreign countries sent exhibits, 
which were great object lessons of progress to the thou- 
sands who viewed them. 

The Virginius affair. — For some years the Cubans had 
been in revolt against the tyrannical rule of Spain. A 
horrible war had been carried on, marked with great 
cruelty on both sides. The United States was neutral, 
but many people in the country sympathized with the 
Cubans and tried to help them by carrying them supplies 
of war. In 1873 the Virginius, a vessel engaged in 



A PERIOD OF DISTRESS AND CORRUPTION 427 

this intercourse, was captured by a Spanish gunboat on 
the high seas; and fifty-three of its crew, incKiding eight 
Americans, were shot. Spain promptly paid a large in- 
demnity, and war was averted. 

The campaign of 1876. — It was evident from the 
election of 1874 that the Republicans would have to 
make a great struggle to maintain their power, and the 
Democrats had high hopes of victory in the next Presi- 
dential campaign. Four parties had tickets in the field — 
the Prohibition, the Greenback, the Republican, and the 
Democratic; but, as usual, the struggle was between the 
two last-named parties. The Republicans indorsed 
Grant's administration, favored a protective tariff, and 
nominated Rutherford B. Hayes of Ohio for President, 
and William A. Wheeler of New York for Vice President. 
The Democrats nominated Samuel J. Tilden^ of New 
York for President, and Thomas A. Hendricks of Indiana 
for Vice President, and adopted a strong reform platform. 
Tilden was a particularly suitable candidate for this 
platform, for he had won distinction in exposing and 
bringing to punishment the ^' Tweed Ring " in New York 
City, which had robbed the government of that city of 
millions of dollars. 

The whole campaign was one of great activity and 
excitement. The Republicans were fighting with the 

1 Samuel J. Tilden was born at New Lebanon, New York, in 1814. 
He was educated at Yale and at New York University and became a 
lawyer. He was a member of the State Legislature and the Constitutional 
Convention of New York and, after playing an important part in breaking 
up the "Tweed Ring," was elected Governor of the State. His able and 
honest administration secured for him the Democratic nomination for the 
Presidency. He died August 4, 1886. He was a man of sterling character, 
and is to be remembered as a great reformer in a period in which great 
reforms were needed. 



428 



OUR REPUBLIC 



odds against them, and the Democrats were determined 
to win. 

The Contested Election. — When the election was finally 
over, it was generally thought that the Democrats had 
been successful; but the Republicans claimed the victory, 
insisting that they had really carried the three States, 
South Carolina, Louisiana, and Florida, in which there 
were disputes as to the returns. ^ In Louisiana and Florida 
the returns gave large Democratic majorities. Mr. Tilden 
had beyond any dispute one hundred and eighty-four 




The Electoral Vote ix 1S76 



electoral votes, which was only one less than the number 
required for election. In the three States mentioned, the 
election returns were in the hands of returning boards that 



1 There was also one disputed elector in Oregon. The State went Re- 
publican, but one of the electors was ineligible for the position. The Demo- 
crats claimed that a Democratic elector should therefore be returned in 
this place. 



SECTIONAL FEELING BEGINS TO DIE 429 

had great powers in counting the vote. The returning 
boards, which were openly and notoriously corrupt, after 
trying without success to sell the election to the Demo- 
crats, threw out votes enough to reverse the result, on the 
ground that they were fraudulent, and declared for the 
Republican electors. The fraud was so evident that 
the Democrats protested vigorously. 

The Electoral Commission. — The Senate was Republi- 
can at this time, and the House of Representatives 
Democratic; and as the electoral vote, under the Con- 
stitution, must be counted in the presence of both Houses, 
there was little hope of any agreement. The debates 
on the subject were very fierce, and for a time it looked 
as if civil war would result from the situation; but at 
length a law was passed providing for the creation of an 
Electoral Commission to decide the dispute. It was 
composed of five Senators, five Representatives, and five 
justices of the Supreme Court. Eight were Republicans, 
and seven were Democrats. Every question that came 
before the commission was decided by a strict party vote, 
and Hayes was declared elected. 

CHAPTER CIV 

SECTIONAL FEELING BEGINS TO DIE 

Hayes's Administratio7i, 1877-Sl; Garfield's and 
Arthur's Administration, 1881-85 

Withdrawal of troops from the South. — Hayes ^ had said 
that if he became President, he would withdraw the 

1 Rutherford B. Hayes was born in Delaware, Ohio, October 4, 1822. 
He was educated at Kenyon College and became a lawyer. He served 



430 



OUR REPUBLIC 



Federal troops from the South. Soon after his inaugura- 
tion, therefore, he withdrew from the ''carpetbag'' 
governments the support of the administration; and, as 
a result, the Republican State governments in South 
Carolina and Louisiana quickly gave way to governments 
chosen by the people. Florida had already redeemed 
herself, and now the people of all the Southern States 

were once more in control of 
their own affairs. In 1879 the 
use of the Federal troops at the 
polls was forbidden by law. 
Prosperity came, and the new 
South began to rise from the 
ruins of the old. 

As a result of the evil govern- 
ment they had endured during, 
and immediately following. Re- 
construction, the Southern States 
became solidly Democratic; and 
they have kept solidly together 
in politics as a guarantee against the return of the negro 
to power. Additional steps to prevent such a thing 
have been taken by the adoption in most of the 
Southern States of new constitutions, beginning with 
the Mississippi constitution of 1890. These constitu- 
tions in one way or another prevent ignorant men, 
both white and black, from enjoying the right to vote. 

in the War of Secession, rising to the rank of brigadier general. Later 
he was a member of Congress, and Governor of Ohio for two terms. He 
became President in 1877 and served one term. He was a good man, but 
not of unusual ability. Because of the doubt as to his election, he was 
handicapped during his whole term and was not considered for a second 
nomination. Hayes died January 17, 1893. 




Rutherford B. Hayes 



SECTIONAL FEELING BEGINS TO DIE 431 

The benefit to both white people and negroes has been 
very great. 

Financial matters. — The resumption of specie payments 
was to become effective in 1879, and the men who wanted 
more money in the country turned to silver as their hope. 
They secured the passage of the Bland Act (1878) which 
provided for the coinage of not less than two million dol- 
lars of silver per month, the weight of the silver dollar to 
be sixteen times that of a gold dollar. Gold was still the 
standard, but silver was accepted at its face value. 

Labor troubles. — The growth and development of in- 
dustry in the period following the war led to the organiza- 
tion of great corporations, which grew with wonderful 
rapidity. To protect the interests of the laboring classes, 
labor unions were organized; and differences between 
capital and labor soon developed. These differences often 
resulted in disastrous quarrels, usually taking the form of 
"strikes." That is, the laborers refused to work, or allow 
others to do so, until their demands were granted. 

During the administration of Hayes, railroad strikes 
were frequent because wages were being reduced along 
with freight rates. The worst of these was at Pittsburg in 
1877, when many lives were lost and millions of dollars' 
worth of property was destroyed. The State was unable 
to check the disorder, and Federal troops had to be called 
out. They soon ended the trouble. 

Campaign of i88o. — In 1880 the Republicans were 
afraid that Hayes would be defeated because of the gen- 
eral feeling in the country that he had not been legally 
elected. General Grant was a candidate for the nomi- 
nation, but the Republicans nominated General James A. 
Garfield of Ohio for President, and Chester A. Arthur of 



432 



OUR REPUBLIC 




James A. GAiaitLD 



New York for Vice President. The Democrats passed 
over Tilden and nominated General Winfield S. Hancock 
of Pennsylvania, and Edward S. English of Indiana. The 

Greenback and Prohibition par- 
ties also nominated tickets. Gar- 
field and Arthur were elected. 

Death of Garfield. — On March 
4, 1881, Garfield^ was inaugu- 
rated as President. One of the 
great evils of the time in gov- 
ernment was the spoils system 
(page 273) by which wholesale re- 
movals from office accompanied 
every change of Presidents. Gar- 
field was besieged by applicants 
for ofhce and in July, 1881, was 
shot and mortally wounded by 
a disappointed and half-crazed office seeker. The Pres- 
ident died in September and was succeeded by Vice 
President Arthur,- who proved himself an honest but not a 
brilliant President. 

Civil-service reform. — In the death of Garfield the 
American people had an object lesson of what the spoils 

' James A. Garfield was born in Orange, Ohio, November 19, 1831. 
He was graduated at Williams College and became a lawyer. He was a 
member of the legislature of Ohio for a number of years. He served in 
the Union army in the War of Secession and became a major general. After 
the war he was elected to Congress and later became United States 
Senator. He was an able legislator, but had not shown hin^self a states- 
man of the first rank. He died September 19, 1881. 

^ Chester A. Arthur was born at Fairfield, Vermont, in 1830. He was 
graduated at Union College, then taught, then practiced law. In 1862, he 
was Inspector-General and Quartermaster-General of New York troops. 
Later he was Collector of the Port of New York City. ,He died in 1886. 



SECTIONAL FEELING BEGINS TO DIE 433 



system might do: and as a result the Pendleton Bill 
was passed providing for the examination of candidates 
for certain offices by a Civil Service Commission appointed 
by the President, and for the appointment of those best 
qualified. The list of offices coming under the civil service 
has been extended from time to time, always with good 
results. Now, not so many officers as formerly are 
chosen because of party service. 

Tariff discussion. — After 1879 a surplus began to ac- 
cumulate in the Treasurj^, and the question of the reduc- 
tion of the tariff arose in consequence. Many prominent 
Republicans, among them President Garfield, had favored 
reduction. In 1882 Congress authorized a commission to 
draw up a bill for the purpose. 
But Congress amended the bill 
until the duties, instead of being 
lowered, were, on an average, 
decidedly raised. 

Engineering feats. — One of the 
most remarkable engineering at- 
tempts of the world was brought 
to a successful conclusion by 
the completion of the Brooklyn 
Bridge from Manhattan Island 
to Brooklyn, in 1883. It began a 
new epoch in bridge construction. 

Another notable work, completed about this time, was 
the Washington Monument, the highest stone structure 
in the world. It is a shaft five hundred and fifty-five feet 
high and is a noble tribute to the Nation's greatest son. 

Campaign of 1884. — During the administrations of 
Garfield and Arthur there were factional fights going on 




Chester A. Arthur 



434 OUR REPUBLIC 

in the Republican Party, which did much to weaken ii 
There was also a feeling in the country that the party hac 
been so long in power that it had grown careless of the- 
rights of the people. Consequently, the Democrats were ■ 
very hopeful of victory. 

The Republicans nominated James G. Blaine ^ of Maine, , 
and John A. Logan of Illinois. The Democrats chose' 
Grover Cleveland of New York, and Thomas A.Hendricks- 
of Indiana. This campaign marks the end of the war 
issues. The attention of the people was directed there- 
after to other matters, such as revenue, expenditure, and I 
the protective tariff. Two other tickets, presented by the 
Greenback-Labor- Anti-Monopoly and the Prohibition par- 
ties, attracted no particular attention. 

The campaign was one of great bitterness, and many 
personal charges were made against the candidates., 
Cleveland was supported by many independent Republi- 
cans called '^Mugwumps, " who refused to support Blaine. 
The election was very close, and the result was in doubt 
for some days; but New York gave Cleveland a small 
majority and decided the contest in his favor. For the 
first time since 1856 the Presidential candidate of the 
Democratic Party had been elected. 

1 James G. Blaine was born in Washington Countji Pennsylvania, 
January 31, 1830. He was graduated at Washington College and, remov-| 
ing to Maine, became a newspaper editor. He served for some time in} 
the State Legislature and was then elected to Congi-ess. He was speaker;, 
of the House of Representatives and Republican leader in Congress, and 
later, for two terms, a member of the Senate. He was Secretary of State' 
under Garfield and Harrison, being one of the ablest of those who have^ 
filled that position. In 1884 he was defeated for the Presidency because^ 
many Republicans deserted his standard, the reason being his connection' 
with a number of scandals during Grant's administration. He died Januarys 
27, 1893. 



DEMOCRATIC TRIUMPHS AND DEFEATS 435 



CHAPTER CV 

DEMOCRATIC TRIUMPHS AND DEFEATS 

Cleveland's First Administration, 1885-89; Harrison's 
Administration, 1889-93 

Important legislation. — Although the Repubhcans still 
held the Senate, and could thus prevent the Democrats 
from carrying out any policy to 
which Cleveland had pledged 
himself, several important laws 
were passed during the adminis- 
tration of President Cleveland.^ 

A new law was enacted (1886) 
arranging the succession to the 
Presidency in case of the death 
of both President and Vice Presi- 
dent. It provided that the Sec- 
retary of State, if eligible, should 
succeed; or, if not, the next Cabi- 
net officer, considered in the 
order of the creation of the executive departments. 

The Interstate Commerce Commission was established 

1 Grover Cleveland was born in Caldwell, New Jersey, March 18, 1837. 
He became a lawyer and settled in Buffalo, New York. He was sheriff 
of Buffalo and won reputation as a man of unflinching courage in the per- 
formance of his duty. He was reform Mayor of Buffalo and reform 
Governor of New York. His successful administration of the latter office 
secured for him the Democratic nomination for the Presidency in 1884, 
and he was elected. He was defeated in 1888, but was again the Democratic 
nominee in 1892, when he was elected. His devotion to duty and his 
firmness in the performance of it won for him the admiration and respect 
of the whole country; and after his retirement from office, his advice 
was welcomed bj' all his fellow-countrymen. He died June 24. 1908. 




Grover Cleveland 



436 OUR REPUBLIC 

in 1887. Its duty is to pass on the rates charged for 
freight and passengers carried from one State to another. 

In order that there might never be a dispute about the 
election of President such as the one in 1876 (page 429), 
a law was passed (1887) providing that each State should 
be the judge of its own electoral vote. 

For the relief of the laboring classes, particularly on the 
Pacific coast, who were suffering from competition with 
cheap Chinese labor, a law was passed (1888) which great- 
ly limited Chinese immigration. In 1892 a still more 
severe law on the subject was passed. The laws were of 
some benefit, but many Chinese came in through British 
America. The smuggling in of Chinese became a profit- 
able industry. 

With a somewhat similar intent, a law was enacted 
(1885) forbidding the importation of laborers who had al- 
ready entered into contracts for labor. 

Strikes. — The labor conditions in the country attracted 
much attention during this whole period. Several serious 
riots occurred, the most serious being in Chicago in 1886, 
when an anarchist outbreak, incited by foreigners, took 
place. A dynamite bomb was thrown which killed seven 
policemen. Several of the anarchists were convicted, and 
four were executed. In the same year there was a strike 
on the railroads leading southwest from St. Louis, which 
tied up traffic for some time. These outbreaks, signs of 
further trouble to come, were viewed with alarm by the 
people of the country. 

The new navy. — At the beginning of Cleveland's ad- 
ministration, the navy of the United States was an object 
of the world's contempt. But under the direction of his 
able Secretary of the Navy, William C. Whitney, the 



DEMOCRATIC TRIUMPHS AND DEFEATS 437 



building of new ships was pushed forward, and the move- 
ment was started which by the close of the century gave 
the country a powerful navy. 




•■»— ltf>' 



isil^KedsniJ*^.- ' 



A Uattlbship of the Atlantic Fleet 

Civil-service reform. — Cleveland was a firm believer in 
the reform of the civil service; and because he would not 
remove all Republican officeholders, he offended many 
members of his own party. Because he removed some, the 
Independents who had supported him were disappointed 
and displeased. He also gained the hostility of many of 
the Union veterans by vetoing a large number of pension 
bills that were unwarranted and extravagant. His dis- 
regard of the rules that usually govern politicians made 
him some bitter enemies; but he won the respect of the 
people of the country, regardless of political faith. 

The tariff question. — Toward the close of Cleveland's 
administration, the discussion of the tariff was renewed by 
the action of the President. The National debt had been 
greatly reduced, and almost all the war taxes had been re- 
pealed. The tariff produced much more revenue than was 
needed to pay the interest on the debt and the running. ex- 



438 OUR REPUBLIC 

penses of the Government, and it seemed to many that 
the time had come when the tariff should be reduced. 
But manufacturers had demanded the protection of Amer- 
ican industries, and nothing had been done in the way of 
reduction. The surplus produced a very serious condition ; 
for more and more money was thus being drawn from cir- 
culation, and Congress was tempted to extravagant ap- 
propriations. 

So Cleveland in his annual message to Congress in 1887 
proposed that the tariff should be lowered and the surplus 
thereby reduced. The Mills Bill, which provided for a 
reduction, then passed the House; but it was rejected by 
the Republican Senate, and thus became the main issue of 
the next campaign. 

Campaign of 1888. — ^The Democrats renominated 
Cleveland and chose Allen G. Thurman of Ohio, as their 
candidate for Vice President. The Republicans nom- 
inated Senator Benjamin Harrison^ of Indiana, the grand- 
son of President William Henry Harrison, and Levi P. 
Morton of New York. Three small parties also had Presi- 
dential tickets. The Republicans wanted a high tariff, 
and the Democrats a low tariff. Cleveland received a 
majoritj'^ of the popular vote, but Harrison was elected. 
He was inaugurated March 4, 1889. 

Some important laws. — The Republicans secured a 
majority in both houses of Congress in the election of 
1888, and were therefore able to put their policies into 
effect. Several important measures were enacted into law. 

The Republican plan of a high tariff to protect home 

> Benjamin Harrison was born at North Bend, Ohio, August 20, 1833. 
He was graduated from Miami University, and later practiced law in Indi- 
anapolis. He served as an officer throughout the War of Secession. He 
was United States Senator, 1881-87. He died March 13, 1901. 



DEMOCRATIC TRIUMPHS AND DEFEATS 439 



manufactures was carried out in the so-called ''McKinley 
Bill." A new pension law greatly increased the amount 
paid by the Government to the Union veterans. A law 
known as the ''Sherman Anti-Trust Law" was passed 
as a means of controlling the 
"trusts" or great business or- 
ganizations. A law called the 
"Sherman Act" amended the 
Bland Act (page 431), so that 
the Government, instead of 
coining silver money, had to 
purchase 4,500,000 ounces of 
silver every month, and, keep- 
ing it in the Treasury, issue 
on it paper money called silver 
certificates. 

New States.— In 1889 the 
States of North Dakota, South 
Dakota, Montana, and Washington were admitted to 
the Union. A year later Idaho and Wyoming were 
received, making a total of forty-four States. The Ter- 
ritory of Oklahoma was also set off from Indian Territory 
and opened to white settlers, who immediately poured in 
by thousands to take possession of the rich lands. 

A new party. — The Sherman Act was designed to 
prevent the passage of a bill, providing for the free coin- 
age of silver, which had been stopped in 1873 (page 424). 
Free coinage means the privilege to anyone of carrying 
bullion to the mint and receiving its weight in coined 
money. The bill was introduced by members of the 
People's Party, a new political organization formed by 
a combination of the farmers of the West and the South, 




Benjamin Harrison 



k 



440 OUR REPUBLIC 

who had some years before organized the Farmers' AlH- 
ance. Prices of agricultural products were low, and the 
farmers believed that this would raise them. Certain 
elements of the Labor Party in the silver-producing 
States of the West had also advocated the free coinage 
of silver. The silver miners thought that free coinage 
would raise silver to its old price, while the other mem- 
bers in the party wanted more money. In 1890 they 
elected a number of members of Congress and carried 
several States, but the Democrats swept the country and 
secured a large majority in the House. 

Campaign of 1892. — Three parties strove for su- 
premacy in 1892. The Democrats nominated Cleve- 
land for the third time and put Adlai E. Stevenson of 
Illinois on the ticket with him. The Republicans nomi- 
nated Harrison and Whitelaw Reid of New York. The 
People's Party, or Populists, nominated James B. Weaver 
of Iowa, and James G. Field of Virginia. The chief 
issue between the Republicans and the Democrats was 
the tariff; but the People's Party had a number of new 
demands in their platform, such as the free and unlimited 
coinage of gold and silver. Government ownership of 
railroads and telegraph lines, the lending of money by 
the Government to individuals on the security of farm 
products, and the repeal of the tax on State banks 
(page 374). The People's Party also proposed to tax 
the incomes of the wealthy. 

The Democrats carried the country by a large majority, 
Cleveland receiving 277 electoral votes, Harrison 145, 
and Weaver 22. For the first time since the war the 
Democrats had the President and a majority in both 
houses of Congress. 



DEMOCRATIC TRIUMPHS AND DEFEATS 441 

CHAPTER CVI 

DEMOCRATS IN CONTROL OF THE GOVERNMENT 

ClevelancVs Second Administration, 1893-97 

The panic of 1893. — Soon after Cleveland's inaugura- 
tion there was a panic, due partly to the prospect of a re- 
duction of the tariff, and still more to the small volume of 
money in circulation. The price of silver had gone down, 
and the gold reserve in the United States Treasury had 
fallen below the amount required by law. So many 
notes had been issued in payment for silver that many per- 
sons believed the Government would never redeem them ; 
and this caused uneasiness, which soon brought on the 
panic. Over three hundred banks failed or were forced to 
suspend payment, and this caused in turn the failure of 
thousands of business houses. Business stopped, factories 
were closed, and many thousands of people were left with- 
out employment. 

Repeal of the Sherman Act. — President Cleveland at 
once called an extra session of Congress; and upon his 
recommendation the Sherman Act (page 439) was re- 
pealed, but only after bitter opposition by the silver forces 
in Congress. Business recovered very slowly, and there 
was much distress. Labor agitation of an intense kind 
followed. In 1894 a man named Coxey organized a body 
of uhemployed men to march to Washington to present 
petitions to Congress. " Coxey 's Army," or a small part 
of it, finally reached Washington, but did nothing of im- 
portance there. The repeal of the Sherman Act produced 
a division in the Democratic ranks, and many people in 



442 OUR REPUBLIC 

the South and the West incUned toward the People's 
Party. 

The Wilson Bill. — The chief issue of the campaign had 
been the tariff, and the Democrats were pledged to its 
reduction. But the great panic for some time prevented 
its consideration. In December, 1893, the question was 
taken up ; and the House passed the Wilson Bill, providing 
for a reduction of the tariff. It also included an income 
tax, added to satisfy the West and the South, but later 
declared unconstitutional by the Supreme Court. The 
bill was greatly altered by the Senate and was so unsatis- 
factory to President Cleveland that he allowed it to be- 
come a law only to carry out the party's pledge, refusing 
to sign it. It was a failure and did nothing to relieve busi- 
ness conditions; and as the Government needed more 
money, bonds had to be issued to the amount of $250,000,- 
000. Owing to the general dissatisfaction in the country, 
the Republicans were victorious in the congressional elec- 
tions of 1894. 

Strikes. — As a result of the hard times and on account 
of the troubles between capital and labor, several serious 
strikes occurred. The one attracting most notice began in 
the shops of the Pullman Car Company at Chicago (1894). 
It was caused by a decrease in wages and was followed by 
a general railroad strike in Chicago. Trains were not 
allowed to run. Traffic was stopped, and serious destruc- 
tion of property occurred, accompanied by many other 
acts of violence. President Cleveland at once sent 
Federal troops to protect the United States m.ails, and 
order was restored. 

Hawaii. — In Harrison's administration a revolution had 
occurred in the Sandwich Islands, by which Queen Liliuo- 



HonuluTiT Jtom, V 

-r HAWAIiyiilA 





DEMOCRATS CONTROL THE GOVERNMENT 443 

kalani was deposed and a republic established. Americans 
living in the island of Hawaii had done much to cause this 
outbreak, and marines from American war vessels had 
protected them and made it possible for the revolution to 
succeed. The new Government had 
induced President Harrison to make 
a treaty of annexation, which was 
before the Senate when Cleveland 
went into office for the second time. 
President Cleveland at once with- 

The Hawaiian Islands 

drew the treaty until an mvestiga- 
tion could be made. He was finally convinced that the 
United States Navy had been wrongfully used in the 
uprising, and he declined to resubmit the treaty. 

The World's Columbian Exposition. — In 1893 there was 
held at Chicago an international exposition to celebrate 
the four hundredth ^ anniversary of the discovery of 
America by Columbus. It far surpassed anything of the 
kind hitherto attempted. It lasted for six months and was 
viewed by more than twenty-seven million persons. 

Relations with Great Britain. — A second trial of arbi- 
tration as a means of settUng international disputes was 
made by the United States and Great Britain in 1893. 
The question of the right to control the seal fisheries in 
Bering Sea, claimed by the United States in order to 
protect the seals, was decided by a board of arbitration 
against the United States. But the purpose of contention 
of the United States was practically won, as the board 
made rules that protected the seals. 

For many years Great Britain and Venezuela had been 
disputing the boundary line between British Guiana and 

» The Exposition could not be completed by 1892. 



444 OUR REPUBLIC 

Venezuela. Great Britain steadily encroached upon Vene- 
zuela, and refused to submit the question to arbitration. 
Finally, Venezuela appealed to the United States. After 
a fruitless attempt to induce Great Britain to consent 
to arbitration. President Cleveland sent a message to 
Congress (1895) in which he held that the United States 
under the Monroe Doctrine must resist any encroach- 
ment by Great Britain and asked the appointment of a 
commission to investigate the matter. The commission 
was appointed. But before it began its work, Great 
Britain consented to arbitration, and the question was 
settled satisfactorily. For some time it seemed as if 
there might be war between England and the United 
States ; but the people of the country, as a whole, heartily 
approved the President's action. 

The admission of Utah. — In 1896 Utah, having pledged 
itself to suppress polygamy (page 296), was admitted 
to the Union as the forty-fifth State. 

Campaign of 1896. — The chief issue of the campaign 
of 1896 was the money question. The Democratic 
Party, which was sharply divided on this question, nomi- 
nated for President William J. Bryan ^ of Nebraska, a 
young man who was comparatively unknown, though he 
had served in Congress. His nomination was largely 
the result of an eloquent speech in the convention. 
Arthur Sewall of Maine was nominated for Vice Presi- 
dent. The platform demanded the free and unlimited 

^ William Jennings Bryan was born at Salem, Illinois, March 19, 1860. 
He was educated at Illinois College and the Union College of Law. He 
moved to Nebraska and became a lawyer and was for a short time a mem- 
l)or of Congress. He has been the nominee of the Democratic Party for 
the Presidency throe times — in 1896, 1900, and 1908. He is the editor 
of The Commoner, a weekly newspaper of Lincoln, Nebraska. 



I 



THE WAR WITH SPAIN 445 

coinage of silver. The People's Party indorsed Bryan, 
but nominated Thomas E. Watson of Georgia for Vice 
President. The Gold Democrats nominated General 
John M. Palmer of Illinois and General Simon B. Buckner 
of Kentucky. The Republicans chose William McKinley 
of Ohio and Garrett A. Hobart of New Jersey and adopted 
a platform favoring a protective tariff and a gold standard. 
A heated campaign followed in which the financial and 
business circles rallied to the support of the Republican 
Party and contributed an enormous campaign fund. 
McKinley ^ was elected by a substantial majority. 

CHAPTER CVII 

THE WAR WITH SPAIN 

McKinley' s First Administration, 1897-1901 

The Cuban situation. — In 1897 the situation in Cuba 
demanded the attention of the country. The colonial 
policy of Spain had always been notoriously harsh and 
grasping and had not improved since the time when her 
South American colonies had been driven to successful 
revolt eighty years earlier. The island of Cuba had 
received particularly harsh treatment, and its inhabitants 
had revolted again and again. One revolt began in 1868 
and lasted ten years, ceasing only when Spain promised 

1 William McKinley was born at Piqua, Ohio, April 12, 1827. He 
served in the War of Secession with gallantry and rose to the rank of 
major. He then became a lawyer and was for many years a prominent 
member of Congress. He was, as chairman of the Committee of Ways and 
Means, author of the tariff law that bore his name. During the time that 
he was President of the United States he won the admiration, respect, and 
affection of the whole American people; and his death on September 14, 
1901, caused profound regret throughout the country. 



446 



OUR REPUBLIC 




William McKinley 



reforms. But this promise was never carried out. In 
1895 the Cubans, directed by a group of their fellow- 
countrymen in New York, called the ''Cuban Junta," 

again rose in revolt. Spain at- 
tempted to suppress the uprising 
with a cruelty that put civiliza- 
tion to shame. Much sympathy 
for Cuba was felt and expressed 
in the United States, and much 
private aid was given the revo- 

/r'-^jf^^'T^w lutionists; but the United States 
"* \>^ M -^^^ Government remained neutral. 
Loss of the Maine. — In the 
meantime American property in 
Cuba was being destroyed; and 
American citizens were being 
badly treated by the Spanish officers, who resented the 
American sympathy for Cuba. In 1897 Congress finally 
appropriated $50,000 to relieve suffering in the island, 
and in 1898 the battleship Maine was sent to Havana to 
protect American interests. On the night of February 
15th the vessel was destroyed by an explosion, and two 
hundred and sixty-six of her crew perished. Instantly 
the people of the United States were convinced that the 
Spaniards were responsible for the blowing up of the 
Maine and demanded war. But before anything definite 
was done, an investigation was made by a board appointed 
for the purpose. The board of inquiry found that the 
destruction of the vessel was due to the explosion of a 
mine, but went no further. Fitzhugh Lee, our able con- 
sul-general in Havana at the time, said: ''I think prob- 
ably it was an act of four or five subordinate officers." 



THE WAR WITH SPAIN 



447 




General Joseph Wheeler 



War declared.— In April, 1898, 
Congress directed the President 
to force Spain to leave Cuba. 
This was soon followed by a 
declaration of war, in which the 
United 
States 
d i s - 
claimed 
any in- 
tention 
of hold- 



ing Cuba when the war should 
close. The regular army of the 
United States, consisting of about 
twenty -eight thousand men, 
was inadequate to engage in 
war; so the President called first 
for one hundred and twenty-five 
thousand volunteers and then for 




Admiral George Dewet 




General Fitzhugh Lee 



seventy-five thousand addi- 
tional troops. At the same time 
the regular army was increased 
to sixty-one thousand men. The 
country went wild with excite- 
ment and enthusiasm, and the 
Union and Confederate veterans 
vied with their sons in hastening 
to offer their services to their 
common country. It had only 
needed such an opportunity to 
prove that the country was 



448 



OUR REPUBLIC 



thoroughly reunited. Joseph Wheeler and Fitzhugh Lee, 
two Confederate generals, were appointed major generals 
by McKinley, and rendered valuable service. 

The battle of Manila.— The first battle of the war took 
place in the far East. Commodore George Dewey, who 
was in command of the Asiatic Squadron, was ordered to 
go to the Philippine Islands and attack the Spanish fleet 

stationed there. Entering 
Manila Bay early on the 
morning of May 1st, he 
destroyed in four hours, 
without the loss of a man, 
eleven Spanish war vessels 
and a fort. He then block- 
aded the harbor of Manila 
until August, when an 
American army under the 
command of General Wes- 
ley A. Merritt arrived. 
Assisted by Aguinaldo, the 
leader of the native insur- 
gents, the Americans 
stormed and captured the 
city ; and the rule of Spain 
in the Philippine Islands was ended. The victory aroused 
great enthusiasm in the United States, and Dewey was 
soon raised to the rank of Admiral. 




The Philippine Islands 



FIGHTING IN AMERICAN WATERS 



449 



I 



CHAPTER CVIII 

FIGHTING IN AMERICAN WATERS 

McKinley's First Administration, 1897-1901 

Blockade of Cuba. — In the meantime preparations 
were being made for the invasion of Cuba. Admiral 
Sampson was sent with a fleet to Cuban waters, and Com- 
modore Schley wdth a flying squadron was ordered to co- 
operate with him. The Oregon, one of the most powerful 
ships in the navy, was ordered from San Francisco to the 
West Indies. After a voyage of 
thirteen thousand miles, she 
came in safely and joined the 
rest of the fleet. The fleet was 
then engaged in blockading the 
mouth of the harbor of Santiago, 
where a Spanish fleet, under the 
command of Admiral Cervera, 
had taken refuge. During the 
blockade the American vessels 
were frequently fired upon by 
shore batteries, and Ensign Worth 
Bagley of North Carolina was killed by an exploding shell. 
He was the only naval officer to lose his life in the war. 

It was greatly feared that Cervera would succeed in 
slipping by the American fleet; and an attempt to pre- 
vent this occasioned one of the most gallant actions of 
the war. Lieutenant Richmond P. Hobson, with six 
other volunteers, undertook to sink the collier Merrimac 
in the narrow channel leading into the harbor so that the 
Spanish fleet could not escape. In spite of a terrific fire 




Richmond P. Hobson 



450 



OUR REPUBLIC 



from the enemy, the vessel was sunk at the harbor 
entrance ; but it did not lie crosswise as planned and so 
the channel was not blocked. Hobson and his men were 
captured unhurt and were kindly treated in recognition 
of their bravery. 

Invasion of Cuba. — The army was unprepared for war, 
and the War Department was incompetent to cope with 

the difficulties of the situation. 
Consequently, the troops suf- 
fered greatly from sickness 
and the lack of proper supplies. 
Hundreds died in the camps, 
particularly at Chickamauga, 
where fever was rife. Thus 
more damage was inflicted upon 
the army at home than in Cuba. 
In June, 1898, about fifteen 
thousand men, under General 
Wilham R. Shafter, were trans- 
ported from Tampa, Florida, 
and landed in Cuba about six- 
teen miles from Santiago. The 
march on the city was then 
begun by two regiments of 
regulars and the Rough Riders, a volunteer cavalry 
regiment raised by Leonard Wood and Theodore 
Roosevelt. In command of the advance was General 
Joseph Wheeler, whose famous cavalry service under the 
Confederacy made him an experienced leader. The 
Spaniards were encountered first at Las Guasimas, in 
much greater force than the Americans, but were driven 
back. The main force now came up, and El Caney 




■'***^w^£> 



Worth Bagley Monument 
Raleigh, N. C. 



FIGHTING IN AMERICAN WATERS 



451 



and San Juan were captured after heavy losses. The fall 
of Santiago was then certain. 
The battle of Santiago. — When 
it became evident that Santiago 
would be captured, Cervera 
was forced by the Spanish 
authorities to make an effort to 
escape, though he realized the 
hopelessness of the attempt. 
Accordingly, on Sunday, July 
3d, his fleet came out of the 
harbor; and a running fight 
followed, in which the Amer- 
ican fleet under Commodore 
Schley, Admiral Sampson being 

temporarily absent, was completely victorious, sinking 
or capturing every Spanish ship and losing but one man. 
The Spaniards lost heavily, and all the survivors became 
prisoners. 




Admiral Winfield Scott 
Schley 




'f-^*vr"^~«>^ '-' "*», V^*.*" TROPIC OF CANCER 



Sampson • 

Schley — ■ 

Cervera ----- 



CARIBBEAN 
S E A 



JAMAICA 

Km-gstonj 



%V f-^ '*^X'^ DOMINGO \ iJto^ 



1-....: ^once 



y Doiningo 



The War in the West Indies — The Pursuit of Cervera's Fleet 

Porto Rico taken. — Two weeks later Santiago surren- 
dered. At once a force under General Nelson A. Miles 
was sent to occupy Porto Rico, a small but very valuable 



¥ 



452 OUR REPUBLIC 

island which also belonged to Spain. He was marching 
rapidly to the interior with but little opposition other than 
light skirmishing, when the war was ended by an armistice, 
or agreement of both sides to cease fighting. 

The treaty of peace.— In the autmnn of 1898 a treaty 
of peace was signed in Paris. The Philippine Islands and 
Guam, an island in the Ladrones group, and Porto Rico 
were ceded to the United States, which paid Spain $20,- 
000,000. The United States also assumed a protectorate 
over Cuba. Many people in the United States were much 
opposed to the purchase of the Philippines and the reten- 
tion of Porto Rico on the ground that the country had 
no need of colonial possessions and no means of govern- 
ing them, particularly when they were so far away. But 
a majority of the people were attracted by the idea that 
expansion would be advantageous to the commercial 
and industrial development of the country, and the 
treaty was ratified by the Senate in February, 1899. 

Results of the war. — The war brought upon the United 
States the necessity of expansion. It needed coaling 
stations in the Pacific. The Hawaiian Islands were 
annexed in July, 1898 (page 443). In 1899 Wake Island 
was annexed. The same year saw the occupation of 
six of the Samoan Islands. Thus the United States began 
its colonial policy. In consequence of this territorial ex- 
pansion American commerce was largely increased. In- 
ternally, some very interesting results are noticeable: 

1. The army and navy have been increased as a mat- 
ter of necessity. This was much opposed by those who 
had objected to the retention of the Philippine Islands. 

2. The politics of the country entered upon a new 
phase with new issues. In the union of all parts of the 



IMPERIALISM AND THE PANAMA CANAL 453 

country to fight Spain, the bitterness resulting from the 
War of Secession was forgotten, all of it temporarily, some 
of it forever; and a new national feeling was developed. 



CHAPTER CIX 

THE PROBLEMS OF IMPERIALISM AND THE PANAMA CANAL 

McKinley's First Adviinistration, 1897-1901; McKinley's 
and RooseveWs Administrations, 1901-05 

The Philippine insurrection. — The Philippine archi- 
pelago is made up of over two thousand islands (nearly 
all of them very small), the most important of which is 
Luzon. The total area is 115,026 square miles. Some 
of these islands are very fertile. Their chief products 
are sugar, hemp, tobacco, coffee, and indigo. The inhab- 
itants number about eight millions, of many nations and of 
all grades of progress, from savagery to high civilization, 
the majority being comparatively uncivilized. 

Many inhabitants of Luzon firmly expected inde- 
pendence and, when this was refused, under the leader- 
ship of Aguinaldo rebelled against American authority. 
When they found that they could not win by open war- 
fare, they resorted to guerrilla tactics, which prolonged 
the struggle for a long time. The capture of Aguinaldo, 
however, struck the revolt a fatal blow; and the islands 
are now practically subdued. On July 4, 1901, a civil 
government was established for the islands with Judge 
William H. Taft at its head. Under his wise administra- 
tion and that of his successor. General Luke E. Wright, 
prosperity began; and the natives are rapidly being 



454 OUR REPUBLIC 

convinced that they will be benefited by American con- 
trol and will receive fair treatment. 

Cuban affairs. — As soon as the Spanish War closed, the 
United States took temporary possession of Cuba for 
the purpose of organizing its government. During the 
period of American occupation great progress was made 
in taxation, sanitation, and in legal and judicial reforms. 
A constitutional convention met and adopted a con- 
stitution, modeled after that of the United States; and 
as soon as the new government was inaugurated, the 
United States forces were withdrawn (1902). The United 
States has treated Cuba most generously in every way and 
has never violated the pledge with which the war was 
commenced. But a protectorate, with the power of 
interference in case of internal troubles, is retained. 

Porto Rican government. — Porto Rico has been allowed 
a legislative body; but the island is a dependency of the 
United States, and its governor is appointed by the Presi- 
dent. Free trade between the United States and the 
island was established in 1901 to its great benefit. 

Important legislation. — Although the country was en- 
gaged in war during the early part of McKinley's adminis- 
tration, internal matters were considered. In 1897 the 
Dingley Tariff Bill became a law, which made the duties 
on imports higher than they had ever been before. The 
gold dollar was declared the sole standard of value. To 
meet the cost of the war, special stamp and other internal 
taxes were levied. 

Troubles in China. — In 1900 there began in China a 
crusade against foreigners, led by the Boxers, a secret 
patriotic society. The Government of China did noth- 
ing to suppress it or to protect the foreigners, and the 



IMPERIALISM AND THE PANAMA CANAL 455 

leading nations of the world hurried troops and vessels 
there for the protection of their citizens. The United 
States sent General Adna R. Chaffee with an army from 
the Philippines, which rendered good service in the in- 
vasion that followed. The allies, after severe fighting^ 
stormed Pekin and released the foreigners, who had taken 
refuge in the legations. China was forced to pay a large in- 
demnity and to put to death certain leaders of the Boxers. 

Campaign of 1900. — The Republicans nominated Mc- 
Kinley for President and Theodore Roosevelt of New 
York for Vice President. The Democrats again nomi- 
nated William J. Bryan, putting with him on the ticket 
former Vice President Adlai E. Stevenson. The Demo- 
crats denounced "imperialism," as they termed the hold- 
ing of colonial possessions, and demanded independence 
for the Philippines. But the money question was again an 
issue, for the Democrats again called for the free coinage 
of silver. Many Republicans supported Bryan on the 
issue of imperialism, but McKinley was reelected by a 
larger majority than he had received in 1896. 

Assassination of McKinley. — In September, 1901, Pres- 
ident McKinley visited the Pan-American Exposition at 
Buffalo, New York, and while there made a public address. 
A reception followed, at which thousands of people crowd- 
ed to meet the President. Among them was an anarchist, 
who, under pretense of shaking hands with the President, 
shot him. The wound was mortal. McKinley lingered 
for more than a week and died September 14th. Theo- 
dore Roosevelt ^ then took the oath of ofRce and became 
President. 

1 Theodore Roosevelt was born in New York City, October 27, 1858. 
He was educated at Harvard. Then he went to the West for his health, and 



456 



OUR REPUBLIC 



The Panama Canal. — For many years the United 
States had considered the project of cutting a canal from 
the Atlantic to the Pacific, either 
across the Isthmus of Panama or by 
a proposed route through Nicaragua. 
The idea was no new one ; for it had 
been proposed by the Spaniards soon 
after the discovery of America. It 
had been much discussed about 1850, 
and the United States had made 
several treaties on the subject. 

In 1879 a French company under- 
took to construct a canal across the 
isthmus and secured a concession for 
the purpose from Colombia. The 
work was carried on for a time, but 
the company failed and the attempt 
was abandoned. After the Spanish 
War, however, the need to the United 
States of such a canal was greatly 
increased; and steps were taken to 
build one by the Nicaragua route. 
But when the French holders of the 
Panama concession offered to sell it to the United States 
(1902), the offer was accepted and their rights purchased 




The Panama Canal 
Zone and Route of 
THE Canal 



while there was a cowboy and hunter. Returning to New York, he 
entered pohtics and served in the legislature. He was a member of the 
United States Civil Service Commission for six years and was Police 
Commissioner of New York City for two years. He served for a year 
as Assistant Secretarj^ of the Navy and did much valuable service in 
preparing the navy for the war with Spain. He resigned in 1898 and 
raised a regiment of volunteer cavalry known as the "Rough Riders," 
of which he became lieutenant colonel. In the fall of 1898, he was elected 



IMPERIALISM AND THE PANAMA CANAL 457 

for $40,000,000. A treaty with Colombia was then drawn 
to give the United States proper control of the canal, but 
Colombia refused to ratify it. Thereupon, Panama seced- 
ed from Colombia and set up an independent republic, 
which, after recognition by the United States, made the 
desired treaty. Work on the canal then began at once. 

Alaska boundary dispute. — Gold was discovered in the 
Klondike region of Alaska in 1897; and as a consequence, 
thousands of settlers 
poured into the coun- 
try as they had into 
California in 1849. 
The boundary with 
Canada had never 
been settled; and it 
now became neces- 
sary that it should 
be determined, as 
Canada claimed a 
large part of the 
Klondike region. In 1903 the decision of the disputed 
question was referred to a board of arbitration, which de- 
cided the matter substantially in favor of the United 
States. 

The great coal strike. — In 1902 the anthracite coal 
miners of Pennsylvania went on strike over the question 
of wages. The strike lasted for nearly six months ; and 
there was not only suffering among the miners, but great 




Alaska and the Klondike 



Governor of New York and in 1900, Vice President. He became President 
on the death of McKinley and was reelected in 1904. Few men in our 
history have been more widely admired, and few have exerted a greater 
influence. 



458 OUR REPUBLIC 

distress over the whole country because of the scarcity 
and high price of coal. President Roosevelt intervened, 
with the suggestion that the quarrel between the mine 
owners and the strikers should be referred for arbitra- 
tion to a commission, which he would appoint. As a 
result, a settlement of the difficulty was agreed upon. 

Louisiana Purchase Exposition. — In 1904, in commemo- 
ration of the purchase of the Louisiana Territory by Presi- 
dent Jefferson, a world's fair was held in St. Louis, the 
largest city in the purchased territory. In every way it 
was the most extensive and most successful exposition 
ever held. 

Campaign of 1904. — In 1904 Roosevelt secured the 
Republican nomination for President, and Charles W. 
Fairbanks of Indiana was nominated for Vice President. 
The Democrats nominated Judge Alton B. Parker of 
New York and Henry G. Davis of West Virginia. The 
question of regulating "trusts" was the chief issue ad- 
vanced by the Democrats. The Republicans appealed to 
the country on their record. Roosevelt was very popular 
in all parts of the country and was elected by an enormous 
majority, receiving about two millions more of the popu- 
lar vote than Parker did. 



RECENT EVENTS 



459 



CHAPTER CX 



RECENT EVENTS 



Roosevelt's Administration, 1905-09; TafVs 
Administration, 1909- 

Important legislation. — Several important laws were 
passed in President Roosevelt's second administra- 
tion. A pure food law was adopted, which provided 
for the inspection and proper labeling of food products 
and drugs entering into inter- 
state commerce. The Hepburn 
Bill provided for the regulation 
of the rates on all railroads 
engaged in interstate business. 
Both of these laws mark in- 
creased activity on the part of 
the Federal Government, and 
both are designed for the good 
of the people. 

The Jamestown Exposition. — 
To celebrate the three hundredth 
year since the establishment of 
the first permanent settlement 
in America, an international ex- 
position was held near Norfolk, Virginia, in 1907. Among 
its features of interest was the constant presence of war 
vessels of many nations in Hampton Roads. 

The panic of 1907.^ — The development of the trusts 
had excited much discussion and caused great uneasiness 
for many years. In President Roosevelt's administration 




Theodore Roosevelt 



460 OUR REPUBLIC 

a number of prosecutions were begun by the Federal 
Government under the authority of the Sherman Anti- 
Trust Act (page 440) . These agitations, coupled with the 
fact that speculation in business during the period of pros- 
perity had caused the manufacture of more products 
than could be sold, led to loss of confidence in the 
business and financial world. The result was the panic 
of 1907, when for a time all kinds of industries were 
checked. 

Admission of Oklahoma. — In 1908 Oklahoma, which 
had been open to settlement since 1890, and Indian 
Territory were united, and admitted to the Union as the 
forty-sixth State, with the name Oklahoma. 

The voyage of the fleet. — In 1908 President Roose- 
velt determined to send a fleet of American war vessels 
around the world after it should have first visited the 
Pacific coast of the United States. The plan excited 
much comment and some opposition, as our relations 
with Japan were at that time somewhat strained. Ameri- 
can citizens living on the Pacific coast had shown hostility 
toward the Japanese who had settled among them. 
However, the fleet, after leaving the Pacific coast, went 
to Hawaii, Japan, the Philippines, and Australia, and 
returned home by way of the Suez Canal and Gibraltar. 
The voyage was an entire success and redounded to the 
credit of the navy and of the United States. 

The conference of governors. — In 1908 President 
Roosevelt invited the governors of the different States 
to meet with him in Washington to confer in regard to 
matters for the general good of the country. The meet- 
ing was in all respects successful, and brought about a 
better spirit of cooperation among the States. 



RECENT EVENTS 



461 



Campaign of 1908. — Largely through the efforts of 
President Roosevelt, his Secretary of War, William H. 
Taf t ^ of Ohio was nominated for President by the Repub- 
licans. For Vice President they nominated James S. 
Sherman of New York. The Democrats for the third 
time nominated their old favorite 
William J. Bryan and with him, 
for Vice President, John W. Kern 
of Indiana. The Democrats de- 
manded the reduction of the 
tariff, and the Republicans also 
pledged themselves to bring it 
about. As a result of the panic, 
there was much discussion of 
financial questions in the cam- 
paign, the Republicans favor- 
ing a postal savings bank, and 
the Democrats a system of 
guaranteeing bank deposits. Taft was elected by a large 
majority. 

The Aldrich Bill. — -Soon after he was inaugurated, 
President Taft called a special session of Congress to 
consider the reduction of the tariff; and the Aldrich Bill 
was passed which, though reducing the tariff on some 
articles, really made it higher as a whole. An inter- 
esting party situation developed during the session. 




William H. Taft 



'William Howard Taft was born in Cincinnati, Ohio, September 15, 
1857. He was graduated at Yale and became a lawyer. He was in 
succession prosecuting attorney, judge of the Superior Court of Ohio, 
Solicitor-General of the United States, circuit judge, and Dean of the Uni- 
versity of Cincinnati School of Law. In 1898 he was made President of 
the Philippine Commission, and later Governor of the Philippines. He 
returned to the United States to become Secretary of War in 1905. 



462 OUR REPUBLIC 

some of the Democrats joining with the RepubUcans 
in voting protective duties, and some of the RepubUcans, 
called 'insurgents," voting for radical reduction of the 
duties. The insurgents also attacked the growing power 
of the Speaker of the House of Representatives, evidently 
determined that the Speaker should do the will of the 
House rather than that the Representatives should do 
the bidding of the Speaker. 

New Mexico and Arizona. — In 1910, Congress enacted 
that New Mexico and Arizona should each have the 
privilege of becoming a state. As soon as these territories 
have made constitutions acceptable to Congress and the 
President, they will be admitted to all the rights of 
statehood. There will then be forty-eight states and no 
territories within the borders of the United States, 



CHAPTER CXI 

PROGRESS OF THE COUNTRY, 1865-1910 

Some terrible disasters. — Since 1865 the progress of the 
country has been steady. Labor strikes have at times dis- 
turbed the quiet of certain sections of the country (pages 
436 and 442), but on the whole the strikes have been set- 
tled to the satisfaction of all parties. In April, 1910, there 
was a great strike of street-car employees in Philadelphia; 
but the matter was settled so that the daily business of the 
city went on without much interruption. 

Disasters have come to certain localities and have for 
a time checked progress. In 1886 Charleston, South 
Carolina, was visited by an earthquake, which took many 
lives, demolished hundreds of houses, and destroyed, all 



— PROGRESS OF THE COUNTRY, 1865-1910 463 

w 

told, eight million dollars' worth of property. Aid came to 
the stricken city from all parts of the United States, and 
soon Charleston was rebuilt, a finer city than it was before. 

In 1906 the city of San Francisco was visited by the 
most terrible earthquake that has been experienced in the 
United States. Thousands of houses were destroyed, and 
many hundreds of lives lost. The earthquake was fol- 
lowed by a fire, and the city was practically destroyed. 
Americans everywhere responded, and trains loaded with 
provisions and supplies of all kinds were dispatched to the 
West. Over $5,000,000 was raised for the sufferers. 

In 1904 the greater portion of the business section of 
Baltimore was destroyed by fire; but to-day that section 
of Baltimore is rebuilt and much improved. 

The country has seen two great disasters due to floods. 
In 1889 Johnstown, a valley town of Pennsylvania, was 
practically destroyed by the breaking of the dam to an 
immense reservoir in the mountains above. About two 
thousand lives were lost, and along the valley much prop- 
erty was destroyed — probably amounting to twelve mil- 
lions of dollars. 

In 1900 a tornado swept over Galveston, Texas, and 
drove up from the Gulf of Mexico a tidal wave such as has 
never been recorded before. About seven thousand per- 
ished when the city became submerged. Again the whole 
country came to the aid of the afflicted. Since then a 
great sea wall has been built around the city, so that there 
can never be a recurrence of such a calamity. 

Race troubles. — Since the days of Reconstruction in 
the South but little friction has existed between the 
white people and the negroes. In many places the 
negroes are making great strides in wealth. They are tak- 



I 



k 



464 



OUR REPUBLIC 



ing advantage of the free public schools. Here and there 
slight disturbances have occurred, but each year the 
hostility between the races is growing less. For the year 
1910, we find that the feeling toward the negro is prac- 
tically the same in the North as in the South, except that 
among white laborers the opposition to the negro is 
stronger in the North than in the South. The feeling 
toward the Japanese and Chinese on the Pacific coast is 
probably more intense than the feeling in the East against 
the negroes. In many places there is a prejudice against 




Map Showing How the Centers of Population and Manufacture 
Have Been Moving Westward 



the immigrant. This, however, is soon overcome; for the 
immigrant very quickly adopts American ways of living 
and thinking. In New Orleans in 1890 occurred an 
outbreak against the foreign element, during which some 
Italians were lynched. This followed the assassination of 
the chief of police of that city, who had caused the arrest 
of a number of Italian criminals — members of a secret 
society called the ''Mafia." 

• Population and area. — The epoch that followed the 
War of Secession was one of great growth along many 
lines. This is nowhere more apparent than in population. 



PROGRESS OF THE COUNTRY, 1865-1910 465 

The census of 1870 showed a total population of about 
39,000,000 and that of 1900 of about 76,000,000.1 In 
this period eight new States were admitted, all of them 
from the West. During this period increasing numbers 
of both foreign and native born have been settling in 
the cities, so that the census of 1900 shows more than 
seventy-five cities having each a population of over fifty 
thousand. New York is now the second largest city in the 
world. For many years immigration from Europe has 
brought in several hundred thousand people annually. 
In the main they have settled in the North and the West. 
The South has received very few because European labor- 
ers are unwilling to work side by side with the negro 
laborers of the South. 

In this period many important accessions of terri- 
tory have increased the area of the country over seven 
hundred thousand square miles. The purchase of Alaska 
in 1867 was an important epoch in the expansion of the 
United States. It marks the first accession of territory 
lying apart from the States, as well as the beginning of a 
new form of Territorial government directly under Con- 
gress. All the accessions of territory since that date have 
come under the title ''Insular Possessions," that is, ter- 
ritory consisting of islands. - 

Industrial development. — The era has been one of 
industrial development. Never has any other nation 

' The estimated population for 1910 is 90,000,000. 

= These acquisitions are as follows: Hawaii, annexed July 6, 1898; 
Porto Rico and Guam ceded by Spain, and the Philippines purchased from 
Spain, February 6, 1899; Samoa ceded by treaty with Great Britain and 
Germany, February 16, 1900. With the exception of Hawaii, which be- 
came a territory (1900), all these accessions have a form of civil govern- 
ment under Congress. 



466 



OUR REPUBLIC 



advanced with the rapidity and power of the United 
States. By the close of the nineteenth century the 
nation stood foremost among the countries of the 
world in wealth, energy, and activity. The value of 
American products exported in 1900-1901 was over a 




Navigating the Aik 
An English aviator waiting to start until the American aviator, Mr. Curtiss, 
already in the air, has passed him. — Photograph by Paul Thompson, New 
York. 

billion and a half dollars, nearly twice the value of the 
imports. 

Inventions and discoveries. — The most notable inven- 
tions of the period have been in electricity. The problem 
of illumination has been satisfactorily solved by electricity, 
and the methods are being constantly improved. Cars 
run by electricity have greatly* improved transportation 



PROGRESS OF THE COUNTRY, 1865-1910 467 

and travel, especially in the cities. The first electric street 
car line was built in Richmond, Virginia (1888). The tele- 
phone, first exhibited in 1876, has come into general use, 
and the telegraph has been much improved. Ocean 
cables connect all parts of the world. The Pacific Cable 
between San Francisco and the Philippine Islands was 
completed in 1903. Wireless telegraphy was made possible 
at the close of the nineteenth century. It soon came into 
general use on the sea and has been the means of saving 
hundreds of lives and a great amount of property. Electric 
power is also used largely in manufacturing. The world is 
greatly indebted to Thomas A. Edison, an American 
inventor, for what he has done toward this develop- 
ment. 

In inventions of practical benefit the United States 
has led the world. In this connection the phonograph 
and the typewriter are worthy of note. Although the 
bicycle and the automobile are not American inventions, 
they have developed in this country great industries 
with immense capital. American inventors have taken a 
leading part in perfecting new inventions for aerial 
navigation. 

Science. — The United States has contributed much 
to the sciences, particularly that of medicine, in which 
she is probably second only to Germany. In surgery 
she holds first place, as is the case in the applied sciences 
generally, and in engineering. In engineering worthy of 
note, was the building of Brooklyn Bridge (page 433) and 
the deepening of the mouth of the Mississippi by the 
"Jetty System" so that boats drawing twenty feet of 
water can come into the river. The plan, submitted by 
James B. Eads, was approved by Congress in 1875. The 



468 OUR REPUBLIC 

channel of the River was made narrow by ^'jetties' 
(great embankments) so that the current flows swiftly 
and washes out all obstructions. The system is a great I 
success. 

Education. — Tremendous progress has been made in \ 
education. This is best seen in the public schools, which. i 
have greatly increased in number and improved in equip- 
ment. There are more and better trained teachers through- 
out the country, and in 1909 there were nearly twenty 
million public-school pupils enrolled. A phenomenal 
growth is to be seen also in the colleges and universities. 
Millions of dollars have been given to them for endow- 
ment and equipment, and their development has beem 
very rapid. 

Other educational factors have been the free public 
libraries, Chautauquas, and summer and correspondence 
schools, which have reached millions who could not other- 
wise have enjoyed the priceless benefits of education. 
The magazines and newspapers have played no small! 
part in general education, and through the medium of 
the rural free delivery they promptly reach all parts of 
the country. 

Western progress. — During the period following thej 
war the West was put in close touch with the world by 
the building of railroads, and its population increased 
by leaps and bounds. By the end of the century it had: 
become in many respects the predominant section of the! 
country. Its rich lands have been occupied rapidly, 
and agriculture is conducted on a scale never equaled in 
the history of the world. This has been made possible: 
by improved machinery which has revolutionized agri- 
culture everywhere. Grain is grown in tremendousj 



PROGRESS OF THE COUNTRY, 1865-1910 469 

quantities, and cattle-raising is carried on as never 
before. These two industries, with the packing of meat, 
have made the West a great food source for all countries. 

Nor has the West been left behind in intellectual 
development. All these States have flourishing schools 
and colleges, and their State universities are beginning 
to set the pace for those of the older States in the 
East. 

Conservation of resources. — One of the factors that is 
becoming daily more important in the development of the 
West is the Government policy of conserving the natural 
resources of the country so that they will benefit all the 
people. Large forest reserves have been made, and every 
encouragement has been given to settlers to reclaim the 
arid lands of the West by irrigation. The Department of 
Agriculture is doing a valuable work in finding out what 
crops grow best in the various localities, and the results 
have been of great practical benefit. 

Southern development. — The most remarkable develop- 
ment within a short space of time is to be seen in the South. 
When once the native white people had regained control of 
affairs, progress commenced; and it showed clearly that 
the abolition of slavery had freed the South from its 
greatest burden. Free labor has proved much more pro- 
ductive than slave labor, since it has permitted the in- 
troduction of improved methods of agriculture. Larger 
crops are raised, and planters and farmers have learned 
how to vary their crops with benefit both to the soil and 
to the crop. Trucking alone brings to the South every 
year many millions of dollars. 

While the South is still chiefly an agricultural section, 
momentous changes are to be seen in its industrial life. 



470 OUR REPUBLIC 

Manufacturing has steadily increased. All the cotton, for 
example, is no longer carried to the North or elsewhere to 
be made into cloth; but great quantities are used by South- 
ern mills. South Carolina and North Carolina now stand 
second and third among the cotton-manufacturing States 
in the Union. Lumbering has become an important in- 
dustry; also the manufacture of wood products. North 
Carolina is second only to Michigan in the manufacture 
of furniture. Coal and iron mines have been opened, and 
Alabama is second among the States in the production of 
steel. Water power is being developed, and this will 
in time change completely the means and methods of 
manufacturing. With the growth of wealth and pros- 
perity has come a wonderful educational revival in the 
South. Systems of public schools have been established 
and improved, and the opportunity of getting an educa- 
tion is given to all. Colleges and universities are grow- 
ing in wealth, power, and usefulness, and are increasing 
in number. 

In spite of this progress the South has made only a 
start in the development of its wonderful resources. The 
present century will show far greater results. 

Business development. — One of the most dangerous 
developments in this period has been that of ''trusts," as 
great business corporations or combinations are called. 
Through their vast wealth and influence they are able to 
put small concerns out of business — shut them out of 
competition and control prices. More dangerous still, 
the trusts often control legislation. As a consequence, 
both the States and the United States are taking steps so 
to limit them by law that their wealth cannot be used to 
tempt or threaten. 



PROGRESS OF THE COUNTRY, 1865-1910 471 

Conclusion. — It will be clearly seen that the progress of 
the country up to the present time has been largely in 
industries, inventions, and sciences, and in political ex- 
pansion. But in the closing years of the last century there 
was also the beginning of a great philanthropic activity. 
Now an increasing part of the vast wealth of the country 
is being used for charitable purposes. In literature, music, 
and art the country has not taken the highest rank, but 
it has of late shown such interest and progress in these 
subjects that we may hope that in the coming years the 
United States will become also one of the foremost nations 
in artistic achievement. 



I 



QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES 

References are here made to the books named in the Ijibrary Lists on 
pages vii and viii, the books being indicated by the names of authors. Wi!- 
hamson I refers to "The Life of General Robert E. Lee" and Wilhamson II 
to "The Life of General Stonewall Jackson." 



CHAPTER I 

Map Exercises. — Find on the maps in your Geography each of the 
countries and cities mentioned in this chapter. 

Definitions.— Find the meaning of tenant, sway, emerge, adventure. 

Questions. — How would civil wars keep Germany from engaging in 
"discoveries in the western world"? Why was France stronger under 
Charles VIII than she had been before? What is meant by "the middle 
class" ? How was Italy like Germany in 1492? What evidence does the 
picture on page 3 give of the wealth and power of Venice? What evi- 
dence do you find that England "was probably the best governed " country 
in Europe in 1492? Name two causes that helped to make Spain "the 
greatest power in Europe. " For what reason (see page 9) did the Euro- 
peans try to overthrow Turkish power? What countries were reached by 
the Norsemen in their wanderings? 

References. — Turks: Guerber, 33; Chandler and Chitwood, 13. 
Norsemen: Guerber, 24-30; Southworth I, 1-9. Snorri: Hart, 1-3. 



CHAPTER II 

Map Exercises. — Find on the map on page 8 a route not mentioned 
in the text. How far toward the East had traders gone by this route? 
Which trade route did the Venetians use? 

Definitions. — Find the meaning of caravan, superstition, visionary, 
heretic, equator. 

Questions. — Why was Marco Polo's journey remarkable? Do you 
think the Bible teaches that the world is flat? Why were the people of 
Europe anxious to find a new route to India? What was the difference 
between Mela's idea of the continents and Ptolemy's? For what pur- 
pose did Prince Henry the Navigator send out his expedition? 

References. — Ideas of the World: Guerber, 31-33. Marco Polo: South- 
worth I, 10-23. Prince Henry: Guerber, 33-36. 

473 



474 OUR REPUBLIC 



CHAPTER III 

Map Exercises. — Find mistakes in Toscanelli's map. 

Definitions. — Find the meaning of s'peculation, sphere, circumference, 
decisive, visionary. 

Questions. — Why was Columbus eager to make his westward voyage? 
Why are not the people on the opposite side of the earth from us "walking 
with their feet upward"? What helped and what hindered Columbus 
in getting aid for his voyage? 

References. — Early Life of Columbus: Gordy, 2-3; Chandler and Chit- 
wood, 14; Guerber, 36-89; Southworth I, 24-31; McMurry, 122-127. 
Columbus'' s Search for Help: Gordy, 4-9; Guerber, 39-44; Chandler and 
Chitwood, 5-17; McMurry, 127-133. 



CHAPTER IV 

Map Exercises. — Find Palos and trace the voyage of Vasco da Gama 
on the map on page 8. Find where Columbus would have landed in 
America if he had sailed due west from Palos. Find the Bahama Islands. 

Definitions. — Find the meaning of rudder, strategy, mutiny, visible, mas- 
sacre, turmoil, sedition, incentive. 

Questions. — How did the three evidences noted by Columbus show 
that his ships were approaching land? By what right could Columbus 
take possession of the newly discovered lands? What were the causes, 
principal events, and results of the second voyage of Columbus? The 
third voyage? The fourth voyage? Did his discoveries prove that the 
earth is round? 

Date Worth Remembering. — Discovery of America in 1493 by 
Columbus. 

References. — Voyages of Columbus: Hart, 4-6; Southworth I, 31-36; 
Guerber, 44-57; Gordy, 9-21; Chandler and Chitwood, 17-23; McMurry, 
133-160. Death of Columbus: Guerber, 57-59. 



CHAPTER V 

Map Exercises. — Find Labrador, Cape Breton, Nova Scotia, Brazil, 
Strait of Magellan, Philippine Islands. 

Definitions.— Find the meaning of quest, perilous, expanse. 

Questions. — What caused the voyages made by the Cabots? By 
Vespucius? Balboa? Magellan? What regions were visited by each of 
these explorers? What voyage mentioned in this chapter do you think 
was most important? Why? 

References.— T/ie Caftois; Southworth I, 37-40; Hart, 7-9; Chandler 
and Chitwood, 30-33. Vespucius: Guerber, 60-62; Chandler and Chit- 
wood, 24-28. Balboa: Southworth I, 46-48; Chandler and Chitwood, 
24-28; Guerber, 62-64; Hart, 10-12. Magellan: McMurry, 161-185. 



r 



QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES 475 



CHAPTER VI 

Map Exercises. — Find the Azores, Porto Rico, Tampa Bay, Natchez, 
Mexico, Peru, Chesapeake Bay, St. Augustine. 

Definitions. — Find the meaning of demarcation, disembark, traverse. 

Questions. — Why did the Pope exert a great influence throughout 
Europe? If the world had accepted his "Une of demarcation," what might 
have been the result on the history of America? What led Ponce de 
Leon to the mainland of North America? What led Hernando de Soto? 
What important fact was learned from the explorations of De Soto and 
Coronado? What was the principal aim of the Spaniards in exploring 
and settling the New World? 

References. — DeLeon: Johonnot, 7-9 ; South worth I, 41-42; Guerber, 
64-65; Chandler and Chitwood, 34-37; McMurry, 222-226. De Soto: 
South worth I, 50-53; Massey and Wood, 9-10; Guerber, 66-70; Gordy, 
22-29; Chandler and Chitwood, 39-42; Hart, 16-19. Cortez: Southworth 
I, 43-46; McMurry, 186-221; Gordy, 52-70. Pizarro: Southworth I, 
48-50; Hart, 12-16. Cabeza de Vaca: Littlejohn, 7-22. 



CHAPTER VII 

Map Exercises. — Locate Newfoundland, Gulf of St. Lawrence, Mon- 
treal, St. John's River, Lake Champlain, Quebec, Albany. 

Questions. — What attracted the French to the region of Newfoundland? 
Were they tl^e first Europeans to explore this region? (See page 22.) 
Was their claim to the territory just? Where else did they attempt to 
settle and why did they fail? Was Ribault's decision to plant a colony 
at Port Royal wise? Give reasons. What new method of furthering 
colonization is found in the grant to De Monts? Find three reasons for 
French colonization in America. Why did the Dutch explore America? 
What caused them to establish colonies in this country? 

References. — Cartier: Southworth I, 144-148; Guerber, 71-73. Cham- 
pJain: McMurry, 1-34; Southworth I, 153-160. Verazzano: Southworth 
I, 142-144. Ribault: Southworth I, 148-152; White, 1-4. Hudson: South- 
worth I, 123-129; McMurry, 35-46; Johonnot, 24-29; Guerber, 102- 
105; Chandler and Chitwood, 75-78. 



CHAPTER VIII 

Map Exercises. — Find Chili, Peru, Oregon, Cape of Good Hope, 
Roanoke Island. 

Definitions. — Find the meaning of antagonism, -pillage, xincoidh, booty, 
forlorn, dire, pacify. 

Questions. — Why did England take new interest in American coloni- 
zation in the time of Elizabeth? Can you suggest a reason why Drake 
did not return from Oregon to Europe by way of the Cape of Good Hope? 
How would Drake's deeds be considered if done to-day? What change 



476 OUR REPUBLIC 

does this show? Was Grenville's scheme wise? Account for Raleigh's 
interest in America. For the faihire of the first colony he sent over. The 
second colony. What is the most important event given in this chapter? 
Give your reasons. 

References.— DraA;e; Southworth I, 54-63; Guerber, 80-82; Hart, 23- 
25. Raleigh: Guerber, 83-86; McMurry, 47-67; Southworth I, 64-72; 
Connor, 9-15; Gordy, 31-40; Chandler and Chitwood, 44-50. Lost Col- 
ony: Hart, 165-170. 

CHAPTER IX 

Map Exercises. — Trace the boundary lines between the three great 
races of Indians east of the Mississippi River. 

Definitions. — Find the meaning of savage, barbarous, civilized, subsist, 
pestle, frequent, feat, stealthy, ambush. 

Questions. — Why did the Indians bury implements with their dead? 
Can you think of any proof that the Indian mounds are very old? How 
did the savage and the barbarous tribes differ as to implements and food? 
Is there anything about Indian life that is attractive to you? Anything 
that is repulsive? What advantages and disadvantages did the Indians 
have in their struggle against the white men? Make an outline classifying 
the Indian races east of the Mississippi River. 

Ref;erences. — Mounds: Guerber, 20-23. Savage Indians: Guerber, 
15-16; Hart, 91-95. Barbarous Indians: Guerber, 17-20; Karns, 14-21; 
Massey and Wood, 1-4. Esquimaux: Hart, 20-21. Indian Life: South- 
worth I, 85-88; Hart, 55-57, 91-97, 106-125. Indian Legends: 104-105, 
Massey ana Wood, 5-8; Hart, 125-130. Indian Homes: Mowry, 17-23. 

CHAPTER X 

Map Exercises. — Find the mouth of Cape Fear River, Potomac River, 
Hudson River. Find Cape Charles and Cape Henry. 

Definitions. — Find the meaning of utensil, overlapping. 

Questions. — Which reason given for English colonization do you think 
was the one that most influenced the English? Why? Can you suggest 
a reason why no settlement was allowed to be established within one 
hundred miles of the first colony in the "overlapping territory"? How 
long did it take the Jamestown colonists to make the voyage frorn London 
to Virginia? How long would it take now? What makes the difference? 
What kind of work is most needed in a new colony? 

Date Worth Remembering. — 1607, the first permanent English 
settlement in America. 

CHAPTER XI 

Definitions. — Find the meaning of acquit, relent, discord. 

Questions. — What strong traits of character were shown by John Smith? 
What were his moral weaknesses? In what ways did he help the colony? 
What was the best time of the year for new colonists to arrive? Why? 
Make a list of the things that hindered the Jamestown colony at first. 



QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES 477 

References. — John Smith and Pocahontas: Southworth I, 73-84; Chand- 
ler and Chitwood, 51-59; Johonnot, 15-23; Gordy, 42-53; McMurry, 68- 
101; Guerber, 87-100; Hart, 98-104. 

CHAPTER XII 

Definitions. — Find the meaning of inaugurate, martial, sanction, despite. 

Questions. — Why was Governor Dale's system of working the lands far 
better than the old system? What services did Pocahontas render to 
the Jamestown colony? (See also Chapter XL) What was the first agri- 
cultural product that brought money into the colony? What did Yeardley 
do for the colony? Why was the "indented-servant" system in the 
colony good for England? What were the differences between a slave 
and an "indented servant"? Why was the introduction of the repre- 
sentative assembly the most important event mentioned in this chapter? 
Why was the London Company overthrown? 

Date Worth Remembering. — 1619, first representative assembly, and 
beginning of African slavery in the LTnited States. 

References.— Tobacco.- Hart, 63-64. Wild Beasts: Hart, 71-79, 85-89. 
Slavery: Hart, 157-159. Virginia Children: Hart, 172-173, 175-177. 
Plantation Life: Hart, 149-152. 

CHAPTER XIII 

Definitions. — Find the meaning of commonwealth, dub, Cavalier, Puri- 
tan, allegiance. 

Questions. — What do you conclude about the Virginians from the fact 
that they put Harvey out of office? From the fact that many Cavaliers fled 
to Virginia after the execution of Charles I? Did Virginia have more free- 
dom or less under the Commonwealth than it had had under Charles I? 
Prove your answer. What does the treaty between Virginia and the 
Commonwealth prove? 

CHAPTER XIV 

Map Exercises. — Find the Blue Ridge Mountains, Shenandoah Val- 
ley, Alleghany Mountains. 

Definitions. — Find the meaning of haughty, resent, tutor. 

Questions. — What three evidences can you give of the independence 
of the Virginians before the Commonwealth? Why did the Burgesses 
claim the sole right to levy taxes? Why did the people want to elect 
Burgesses often? Why did they oppose large grants of land in their 
colony? What were the causes and results of Bacon's rebellion? Who 
was at fault in this matter? On which side would you expect to find the 
rich planters? Why? What hindered education in the early history 
of Virginia? What aided it? 

References. — Berkeley and Bacon: Gordy, 55-62; Guerber, 155-162; 
Southworth I, 201-207. Indians: Hart, 216-217. 



478 OUR REPUBLIC 



CHAPTER XV 

Map Exercises. — Find Holland, Plymouth. 

Definitions. — Find the meaning of ritual, identity, harass, frugal. 

Questions. — What objections did the Pilgrims have to living in Eng- 
land? In Holland? Did these objections justify their removal to America? 
What was the Mayflower Compact? In what respect was the first gov- 
ernment of Plymouth superior to that of Virginia? How did this come 
about? Why could nine Pilgrims conquer a large village of Indians? 
What does the word "Thanksgiving" signify? Why did the Pilgrims 
apply to the Plymouth Company for a grant of land? Did they have a 
grant from the King? Why did they persecute people who did not belong 
to their church? 

Date Worth Remembering. — 1621, the first English settlement in 
New England. 

References. — Pilgrims: Southworth I, 89-91. Indians: Guerber, 
118-122. Mayflower: Guerber, 105-109; Chandler and Chitwood, 60-65. 
Plymouth: Guerber, 109-113; Hart, 133-136. Miles Standish: Gordy, 
64-79; Southworth I, 92-100. Thanksgiving: Guerber, 113-116. Neiv 
England: McMurry, 108-121; Hart, 57-59. 

CHAPTER XVI 

Map Exercises. — Find Salem, the Charles River, the Merrimac River, 
Boston, Newtown, Cambridge. 

Definitions. — Find the meaning of blasphemy, stocks, ducking stool, rum. 

Questions. — What was the difference between the Puritans and the 
Pilgrims? Which body was more favored by the King? Why did the 
Massachusetts Bay colony succeed better at first than either the Plym- 
outh or the Jamestown colony? What were the good features of the 
government of Massachusetts? The bad features? What laws made by 
the Puritans were unjust? Why? Do you think the views of Roger 
Williams were right? Why? Why was there more trouble over religion 
in Massachusetts than in Jamestown? Did the Puritans object to slavery? 
Why were more slaves brought to Virginia than to Massachusetts? 

General Exercise. — Make a list of the things that helped, and a 
list of those that hindered, the Massachusetts colony. Compare Massa- 
chusetts and Virginia as to laws, religion, and occupation. 

Date Worth Remembering. — 1628, founding of Massachusetts Bay 
colony. 

References— Pwn7flns.- Goodv, 81-86; Hart. 28-31. Voyage: Hart, 
25-28. Boston: Guerber, 122-125. Winthrop: Chandler and Chitwood, 
63-65; Southworth I, 101-109; Hart, 201-204. Birds and Anitnals: Hart, 
59-63, 88-89. Travel: Hart, 67-70. 

CHAPTER XVII 

Map Exercises. — Find Providence, Portsmouth, Connecticut River, 
Windsor, Hartford, New Haven, Kennebec River, Lake George, Dover. 



QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES 479 

Definitions. — Find the meaning of pillage, palisade, dissenter, turmoil. 

Questions. — Can you prove that Roger WilUams was just in his deaUngs 
with the Indians? What early settlement was founded by a woman? 
Why? What is Rhode Island's greatest claim to distinction? Why 
could not the Dutch and the English live peaceably together in the Con- 
necticut region? In what were the governments of Rhode Island and 
Connecticut alike? Was the New Haven colony well governed at first? 
Give reasons for your answer. Were these people in sympathy with the 
Puritans or the Cavaliers in England? How could Massachusetts be 
benefited by the possession of New Hampshire and Maine? How did the 
people of New Hampshire and Maine differ from other New Englanders? 

Open Text-Book Exercise. — State the names and the services of 
the greatest men in the early history of New England. Name the colony 
that you would have preferred to live in and give reasons for your choice. 

References. — Williams: Gordy, 86-90; Johonnot, 32-37; Chandler 
and Chitwood. 67-72; Guerber, 127-134; Southworth I, 110-114. Hooker: 
Chandler and Chitwood, 72-74. New Hampshire: Hart, 192-194. 

CHAPTER XVIII 

Map Exercises. — Draw a map showing the extent of the New England 
Confederacy. 

Definitions. — Find the meaning of confederacy, stupendous, apostle, 
relic, Quaker. 

Questions. — What caused the formation of the New England Confed- 
eracy? What was the plan of government of the Confederacy? Did John 
Eliot do anything for the protection of New England? What caused the 
difference between the treatment of New England and Virginia by the 
Mother Country during the Commonwealth? 

References. — Eliot: Guerber, 126-127. Indian Schools: Hart, 107- 
111. Indian Bible: Johonnot, 44-48. Pine Tree Shilling: Johonnot, 
77-81. 

CHAPTER XIX ' 

Definitions. — Find the meaning of harbor, refugee, politic, stockade, 
revoke, restrain. 

Questions. — Did Charles II improve the government of Massachusetts? 
Of Connecticut? Of Rhode Island? Why did Connecticut and Rhode 
Island hold to their charters instead of making new constitutions when 
they became independent states? What is meant by the expression 
"royal colony" ? Can you think of any reasons why Charles II wanted 
to unite so many colonies under one government? Why did the people 
object? 

Class Exercises — -Tell, as a story, without being questioned, the ac- 
count of King Philip's War. Of the rule of Andros. 

References. — King Philip: Johonnot, 37-44; Southworth I, 115-122; 
Guerber, 138-142. Indian Captives: Hart, 112-115. Regicides: Johon- 
not, 48-51; Guerber, 136-138. Charter Oak: Johonnot, 60-63. 



480 OUR REPUBLIC 



CHAPTER XX 

Definitions. — Find the meaning of veto, specify, adjust, friction, frenzy, 
cereal, ^^manufacturing enterprises." 

Questions. — What changes did King WilHam make in the New England 
colonies and what were his reasons for making them? Do the educated 
people of to-day believe in witches? Why not? Can you suggest a reason 
why laws were made to forbid the wearing of fine clothes? 

Class Exercises. — Tell, as a story, what you have learned about the 
witchcraft delusion. About life in New England in 1700. 

References.— 7?(/(ica/ion.- Hart, 205-210, 214-215, 220-224, 232- 
233. Witchcraft: Johonnot, 64-66; Guerber, 170-173. 



CHAPTER XXI 

Map Exercises. — Find Chesapeake Bay, Kent Island, St. Mary's. 

Questions. — What were the first four English colonies in America? 
Can you explain why Lord Baltimore did not settle in New England? Nor 
in Virginia? How did his charter differ from all the others that you have 
studied? In what colonies was the land bought from the Indians? What 
colonies practiced religious toleration in 1650? What were the causes 
and results of the troubles between Maryland and Virginia? 

Class Discussion. — Defend Lord Baltimore's title to Kent Island. 
Claiborne's title. 

Date Worth Remembering. — 1634, settlement of Maryland. 

References.— ^iJaZ^imore and Maryland: Guerber, 152-154; Chandler 
and Chitwood, 81-84; Southworth I, 179-186; Hart, 143-144. 

CHAPTER XXII 

Map Exercise. — Find Annapolis. 

Definitions. — Find the meaning of deprive, restrict, quell. 

Question. — What evidence can you give to show that Cromwell was a 
just and liberal man? In what respects did the rebellion in Maryland 
resemble Bacon's Rebellion in Virginia? Do you think that the majority 
of Marylanders did right in asking that Maryland be made a royal prov- 
ince? Give reasons for your answer. Was it best that the colonists 
should be taxed for the benefit of the proprietor? 

CHAPTER XXIII 

Map Exercises. — Find the Roanoke, the Chowan, and the Cape Fear 
rivers; the Barbadoes. 

Definitions. — Find the meaning of proprietary, restriction, discord. 

Questions. — What were the objects sought by the colonists who settled 
in the Carolinas? By Charles II in granting the countrj' to the lords- 



QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES 481 

proprietors? Why did the colonists oppose the Grand Model? Were thej' 
right? 

Date Worth Remembeuing. — 1653, first permanent settlement in 
North Carolina. 

References. — "A Royal Gift ": Connor, 16-22. Grand Model: Chand- 
ler and Chitwood, 92-96. Lords-Proprietors: White, 4-7, 44-46. 

CHAPTER XXIV 

Map Exercises. — Find the Ashley River, the Cooper River, Charleston. 

Definitions. — Find the meaning of migrated, tyranny, -prey, piracy, 
thrifty. 

Questions. — What evidences do you find that the first settlers of North 
Carolina were a liberty-loving people? What hindered the progress of 
that colony? What helped it? How did the people of North and South 
Carolina resemble? How did they differ? Can you explain why the Hugue- 
nots did not settle in French territory? What was then the established 
church of France? In what way was the existence of different kinds of re- 
ligious faiths in the same colony a good thing? Why did the colonists 
oppose the laws of trade? What caused the South Carolinians to spend 
their summers on their plantations and their winters in Charleston? Why 
did the governors and proprietors of South Carolina discourage war with 
the Spaniards? 

Date Worth Remembering. — 1670, first permanent settlement in 
South Carolina. 

References. — North Carolina: Connor, 22-38, 45-52. Ashley River: 
White, 8-10. Sorith Carolina: Hart, 65-66, 81-89, 155-157. Charleston: 
White, 11-16. Edisto River: White, 17-19; Foreign Settlers in South Car- 
olina: White, 47-52. Trade in South Carolina: White, 20-22. Hugue- 
nots: White, 22-27. 

CHAPTER XXV 

Map Exercises. — Find Savannah, St. Augustine, St. Simon's Island. 

Definitions. — Find the meaning of dire, deplorable, pauper, designate, 
savannah, alliance, retaliate, siege, wholesome. 

Questions. — What unjust laws were enforced in England in 1730? 
What new motives for American colonization do you find in the founding 
of Georgia? What new methods of colonization? What helped the 
growth of the colony? What hindered it? What military service did 
Oglethorpe render? What work was done by Wesley? By Whitefield? 

Review Exercise. — Give the origin of the name of each southern 
colony. 

Date Worth Remembering. — 1733, the first settlement in Georgia, the 
last of the thirteen colonies. 

References. — Oglethorpe: Guerber, 164-166; Chandler and Chitwood, 
97-101; Southworth I, 197-200; Massey and Wood, 11-13. Voyage: Hart, 
52-53; Massey and Wood, 14-17; The Alligator: Hart, 79-80. The Seal 



482 OUR REPUBLIC 

oj Georgia: Massey and Wood, 18-19. Tomo-chi-chi: Massey and Wood, 
20-25. Salzburgers and Moravians: Massey and Wood, 26-31. Troubles 
with Florida: Massey and Wood, 32-35. Silk Culture: Massey and Wood, 
36-37. Georgia as a Colony: Massey and Wood, 38-49, 47-48. Bethesda 
Orphans' Home: Massey and Wood, 40-44. Mary Musgrove: Massey and 
Wood, 45-46. 

CHAPTER XXVI 

Map Exercises. — Find Albany, Philadelphia, New York City, Wilming- 
ton (Delaware). 

Definitions. — Find the meaning of trinkets, peevish. 

Questions. — What was the principal reason for Dutch colonization in 
America? What is meant by the "patroon system" ? Did it tend to 
make the colony democratic? Explain your answer. What is meant by 
the phrase "ruled with a rod of iron"? Why did so many more races 
settle in New Netherland than in New England? Have you found any 
American colonists who did not care to have a voice in their government? 
What great service did Peter Minuit render to his country? 

Date Worth Remembering. — 1614, first permanent settlement in 
New York. 

References. — Minuit: Southworth I, 130-135. Stuyvesant: South- 
worth I, 13.5-141; Chandler and Chitwood, 77-80; Guerber, 142-146. 
New Amsterdam: Hart, 140-142. 

CHAPTER XXVII 

Definitions. — Find the meaning of burghers, bombardment, entreaty. 

Questions. — Did England have any claim to the territory of New 
Netherland? (See page 22.) Were the Dutch cowardly? (Find in Chapter 
XXVI another reason why the Dutch were willing to pass under English 
rule.) What changes were made by the Duke of York? Were the Dutch 
injured by becoming Enghsh subjects, or were they benefited? How? 
What peculiar kind of local government was introduced? Why did the 
people want a legislative assembly? Why did James II object? What 
evidence do you find of Leisler's wisdom? Why were pirates numerous 
in those days? Why not now? 

Review Exercises. — Which colony had the greatest population in 
1700? Which colony had not then been established? 

Date Worth Remembering. — 1664, English conquest of New York. 

CHAPTER XXVIII 

Map Exercises. — Find the Isle of Jersey and Elizabeth (New Jersey). 

Questions. — Why was New Jersey divided? How did Penn's treat- 
ment of West Jersey compare with James II's treatment of New York? 

Review Exercises. — What colonies had trouble with their proprietors 
about taxes? Make a list of the governments in the colonies that were 



QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES 483 

changed by James II. Repeat all the "dates worth remembering" as far 
as you have gone in the text and give reasons why each is important. 

References. — Penn and the Quakers: Chandler and Chitwood, 86-88; 
SouthworthI, 187-190; Gordy, 82-88; Guerber, 134-136, 147. New Jer- 
seij: Hart, 159-162. 



CHAPTER XXIX 

Map Exercises. — Find Lewes and Wilmington (Delaware). 

Questions. — Why were the Quakers persecuted in England? What 
facts about Penn's early life prove that he was true to his convictions? 
How did he acquire Pennsylvania? How did he develop it? Prove that 
he was just. Who made unsuccessful efforts to get possession of Delaware 
and why did they fail? Why did Penn want an "open passage to the 
sea," and how did he get it? How did "Mason and Dixon's Line" origi- 
nate? Why did so many nationalities settle in the Middle Colonies? 

Review Exercise. — Make a list of the colonies in which the Indians 
were paid for their lands? What colonies had religious freedom? In 1762, 
which was the smallest colony? The largest? The most populous? The 
oldest? Which had the most slaves? What was the largest city? 

References. — Pennsylvania: Southworth I, 191-196: Gordy, 98-101; 
Guerber, 148-152; Chandler and Chitwood, 89-91. Indians: Hart, 
144-148. Other Explorers: Pratt, 87-101. 



CHAPTER XXX 

Map Exercises. — Find Lake Superior, Wisconsin River, Arkansas 
River, Lake Michigan, Matagorda Bay, Biloxi, Mobile, New Orleans, St. 
Louis, Detroit. 

Questions. — How did the French and Spanish differ in their treatment 
of the Indians? Was La Salle's scheme practical? Why did it fail? 
Was Biloxi a good site for a new colony? What was the difference in the 
objects and methods of settlement between the French and the English? 
Why was the possession of the Mississippi River a matter of great im- 
portance? 

Dates Worth Remembering. — 1699, founding of Biloxi, first settle- 
ment in Mississippi; 1718, founding of New Orleans. 

References. — Marquette and Joliet : SouthworthI, 161-168; Chandler 
and Chitwood, 103-105; Guerber, 177-179. La Salle and Hennepin: 
Gordy, 103-114; Guerber, 180-183; Chandler and Chitwood, 105-111; 
Littlejohn, 25-56; Southworth I, 169-178. 

CHAPTER XXXI 

Map Exercises. — Find Schenectady, Salmon Falls, Port Royal, Louis- 
burg. 

Definitions. — Find the meaning of resentment, hostility. 



484 OUR REPUBLIC 

Questions. — What three causes led Louis XIV to desire war with 
England? What unfortunate result to the colonies followed from the 
treaty of Utrecht? Why? Where did each of the wars mentioned in the 
chapter originate? Where was the fighting in America? What colonies 
participated? 

Date Worth Remembering. — 1689, beginning of first conflict between 
the French and English colonies in America. 

References. — Indians: Guerber, 183-187. Early French Wars: Guer- 
ber, 187-191; Johonnot, 52-59. Phipps: Hart, 32-33. Troubles with 
Florida: White, 27-33. South Carolina and the Indians: White, 33-39. 
Pirates: Guerber, 162-164; Hart, 34-51; White, 39-44. 



CHAPTER XXXII 

Map Exercises. — Find Pittsburg, Alexandria. 
'Definitions. — Find the meaning of encroach, revere, retain, ambush. 

Questions. — Did the placing of lead tablets establish the French claim 
to the Mississippi valley? Give reasons for your answer. What early ex- 
periences were preparing Washington for his life work? Why was a union 
of the colonies desirable? Why was it not desired by the colonies? By 
England? Where did this war between the French and the English 
begin? Why was the possession of the source of the Ohio especially impor- 
tant to the contending nations? What caused the failure of Braddock's 
expedition? Why did he refuse to accept the advice of the colonists? 

References. — Final Struggle: Johonnot, 81-85. Acadians: Johonnot, 
66-72; Guerber, 209. Washington: Guerber, 191-199; Southworth II, 
24-43; Gordy, 116-134; Johonnot, 84-92; Franklin: Southworth I, 208- 
222; Gordy, 175-185; Johonnot, 108-114; Guerber. 199-205. Braddock's 
Defeat: Guerber, 206-208. Fort Loudon: Karns, 29-32. 



CHAPTER XXXIIl 

Definitions. — Find the meaning of incompetent, inroad, efficient, com- 
pensate. 

Questions. — WTiat evidence do you find of the great ability of William 
Pitt? Why did Wolfe succeed? Why was the capture of Quebec one of 
the greatest events in American history? Who were the Acadians? 
What do you think of the way they were treated? 

Date Worth Remembering. — 1763, end of the long struggle between 
the French and the English for control of America. 

References. — Montcalm and Wolfe: Gordy, 136-144; Chandler and 
Chitwood, 112-119; Southworth I, 226-243; Guerber, 210-214. French 
Wars and Union: Fiske, 26-38; Connor, 52-60. 



QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES 485 



CHAPTER XXXIV 

Definitions. — Find the meaning of stern, artisan, sturdy, indenture, 
lenient, mansion, frugal, clapboard. 

Questions. — What caused the difference in the way of thinking between 
the EngUsh colonists in the South and in New England? What caused 
the difference in the way of living? Was the presence of foreigners 
in the colonies a good thing? Give reasons for your answer. What were 
the social classes in the thirteen colonies? What were the characteristic 
amusements in New England? In the Middle Colonies? In the South? 
What objects do you find in the homes of to-day that were not in the 
colonial homes? In the kitchens? What was attractive about frontier 
life? What was unattractive? 

General Exercises. — Write an account of the dress, daily life, and 
homes of wealthy aristocrats in Virginia. In Massachusetts. Of an 
artisan. Of an "indented servant." Of a slave. Of a frontiersman. 

References.— C/u7d Life: Hart, 152-155, 170-171, 174, 175-188, 192- 
199, 210-214. Fuel: Mowry, 24-57. Light: Mowry, 61-76. Food: 
Mowrv, 99-116. Clothing: Mowry, 143-171. 



CHAPTER XXXV 

Definitions. — Find the meaning of export, relay, tutor, censorship, diver- 
ally. 

Questions. — What were the most important occupations in New 
England? In the Middle Colonies? In the Southern Colonies? Why 
was river travel more satisfactory than travel by land? How did the 
Atlantic Ocean prove a great blessing to the colonies? What can you 
tell about the first free schools in the colonies? Name and locate each 
of the colonial colleges. What can you tell about libraries, reading, and 
newspapers in colonial times? How did the governments of the colonies 
differ? Name the colonies belonging to each class. Which kind of 
government was most satisfactory to the colonists? To the King? Is 
the local government in your state to-day modeled after the New England 
or the Southern type? What hindered religion in some of the colonies? 
What arguments can you give in favor of an established church? Against it? 

References.— Ptonto^ion Life: Hart, 55-57, 63-64, 149-152, 157-162. 
Life in North Carolina: Connor, 39-44. Travel: Hart, 67-70. Mowry, 
187-206. Letters: Mowry, 247-260. Indigo: White, 54-58. Schools: 
Hart, 201-210, 214-233. Trade in South Carolina: White, 68-74. 

CHAPTER XXXVI 

Definitions. — Find the meaning of despite, discord, restriction, import, 
indignant, arbitrary, evade. 

Questions. — What was the point of dispute in the "Parsons' Case"? 
What were the results? What grievances did the people have against the 
royal governors? In each case, which side do you think was right? Was 



486 OUR REPUBLIC 

it wise for the King to interfere with colonial laws? Give reasons for your 
answer. Why did the Southern colonies object to the navigation laws? 
Why did the New England colonies? What class in England favored 
them? Why? Why did the colonists object to Writs of Assistance? 
What objections did Otis urge? 

References. — Colonies in 1750: Fiske, 4-25. Navigation Acts: Guer- 
ber, 214-217; Hall, 27-36. Otis: Chandler and Chitwood, 130-134. 

CHAPTER XXXVII 

Definitions. — Find the meaning of boycott, obnoxious, effigy, exorbitant, 
designate. 

Questions. — What dangers confronted the thirteen colonies after 
1763? If you had lived in the colonies at this time, would you have ap- 
proved of a standing army? Why did the colonists oppose it? Was it 
right for England to pay all the expense of such an army? What was 
exactly the point of dispute between the colonies and the Mother Country? 
Why is taxation without representation dangerous? What important 
services were rendered by Virginia? By Massachusetts? By South 
Carolina? What were the arguments contained in the Declaration of 
Rights? Were they sound? What was the Declaratory Act? What 
were the Townshend Acts? How did the colonies show their disapproval? 
What conflicts followed? Were the causes of conflict the same in Boston, 
New York, and North Carolina? How did the speech of Otis, the resolu- 
tions of Patrick Henry, and the Declaration of Rights agree? 

References; Stamp Act and Revenue Laws: Fiske, 39-77; Hall, 36-44; 
Guerber, 218-223; Massey and Wood, 49-51; Connor, 60-67; White, 
74-79. Patrick Henry: Gordy, 146-154; Southworth II, 1-8; Johonnot, 
94-98. North Carolina Regulators: Connor, 68-72. Troubles in North 
Carolina: Connor, 73-81. 

CHAPTER XXXVIII 

Map Exercises. — Find Annapolis, Wilmington (North Carolina). 

Questions. — What caused the repeal of the Townshend Acts? Where 
and how did the colonists show their opposition to the tea tax? What was 
the Gaspee affair? Why did the colonists sympathize with the smugglers? 
Was smuggling right? What was the object at which ParUament aimed 
in the passage of each of the Five Acts? What was done by the first 
Continental Congress? 

References.— r/ie Crisis: Fiske, 78-85. Tea: Guerber, 224-228; 
Massey and Wood, 51-52. Samuel Adams: Gordy, 156-163; Southworth 
II, 9-23. "Liberty Tree": White, 80-84. South Carolina: White, 84-89. 
Franklin: Chandler and Chitwood, 165-170. 

CHAPTER XXXIX 

Map Exercises. — Find Lexington, Concord, Williamsburg, Charlotte. 
Definitions. — Find the meaning of detest, resent, disperse. 



I 



QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES 487 

Questions. — Was the British commander justified in ordering his men 
to fire on the colonists at Lexington? What steps were taken against 
British rule in 1775? What toward independence? 

Review Exercise.— rMake a list of the patriotic services of Patrick 
Henry. 

Date Worth Remembering. — April 19, 1775 (Patriots' Day), first 
battle of the Revolutionary War. 

References. — Minutemen: Guerber, 228-232. Paul Revere: Gordy, 
165-174. Lexington: Guerber, 233-236. Putnam: Johonnot, 98-107. 
Allen: Johonnot, 135-140. Liberty Boys: Massey and Wood, 53-59. 



CHAPTER XL 

Questions. — ^What made Washington well qualified to command? 
What difficulties confronted him when he took command of the Patriot 
army? Why did he go to Boston? What brought about the Battle of 
Bunker Hill? What were its results throughout the colonies? 

Review Exercise. — Give some facts in the early life of Washington. 

References. — Washington in Command: Johonnot, 92-94; Chandler 
and Chitwood, 149-156; Southworth II, 44-47; Guerber, 242-245; Gordy, 
193-195. Bunker Hill: Guerber, 237-241. The Crisis: Fiske, 85-105. 
Canada Invaded: Blaisdell and Ball, 18-35. 



CHAPTER XLI 

Map Exercises.— Find Norfolk, Fayetteville, Wilmington (North Car- 
ohna). 

Questions. — What were the causes and the results of Dunmore's War? 
What were the special causes, principal events, and results of the war 
in North Carolina? In South Carolina? 

Review Exercises. — What part did Virginia have in the events that 
brought on the Revolutionary War? What part did North Carolina have? 
South Carolina? Georgia? 

References. — Attack on Charleston: Blaisdell and Ball, 36-49; White, 
96-105. Independence of South Carolina: White, 89-95. 



CHAPTER XLII 

Questions. — What was Howe's plan of action after leaving Boston? 
What acts of George III greatly angered the colonists? What were the 
steps leading to the adoption of the Declaration of Independence? How 
did Washington show his ability as a general in the events of 1776? What 
difficulties confronted the Patriots at the close of 1776? 

Date Worth Remembering. — July 4, 1776, signing of the Declaration 
of Independence. 



488 OUR REPUBLIC 

References. — War in 1776: Fiske, 104-121; Gordy, 195-202; Guerber, 
245-248, 253-262; Chandler and Chitwood, 149-150; Southworth II, 
48-54; Johonnot, 131-135. Jefferson and the Declaration of Independence: 
Guerber, 248-253; Southworth II, 108-111; Chandler and Chitwood, 170- 
181; Gordy, 234-240; Hall, 44-51. Hale: Blaisdell and Ball, 50-61. 
Mecklenburg Declaration: Connor, 82-88. "Hornet's Nest": Connor, 89- 
93. Indians in South Carolina: White, 105-107. Henry Laurens: White, 
108-111. 

CHAPTER XLIII 

Definitions. — Find the meaning of aggressive, contributions, recruit. 

Map Exercises. — Find Bennington, Princeton, Brandywine. 

Questions. — What were the results of Washington's victory at Prince- 
ton? What caused the failure of Burgoyne's expedition? Can you think 
of any criticism that might have been made against Washington by the 
" Conway Cabal"? How was money obtained from foreign countries to 
aid the American cause? 

Date Worth Remembering. — 1778, France gave aid to the thirteen 
colonies. 

References.— T^ar in i777.- Guerber, 262-271; Fiske, 121-143; Gordy, 
202-206; Southworth II, 54-58. French Alliance: Southworth I, 223-225; 
Chandler and Chitwood, 170-174; Fiske, 144-149. John Laurens: White, 
112-117. 

CHAPTER XLIV 

Questions. — What were the hardships endured by the Patriots at 
Valley Forge? Why did the coming of the French cause Clinton to 
evacuate Philadelphia? What do you think was the most feasible plan 
of campaign against the colonies? If you had been an Englishman, would 
you have approved of the plan to begin this campaign in the South? 
What other plans had been tried? 

References.— FaZ/e?/ Forge: Guerber, 271-275, 302-303; Gordy, 202- 
207; Chandler and Chitwood, 151-152; Johonnot, 140-145. Warinl77S: 
Fiske, 149-154; Southworth II, 58-60; Guerber, 275-282; Massey and 
Wood, 60-35. Burgoyne's Surrender. Southworth II, 63-74; Johonnot, 
146-154. 

CHAPTER XLV 

Map Exercises. — Find Knoxville, Point Pleasant, Vincennes, Kas- 
kaskia, Cahokia, the Wabash River. 

Questions. — What were the causes of the westward movement of 
population before the Revolution? What must have been some of the 
arguments used by Clark in talking to the governor of Virginia about the 
importance of driving the British out of the Northwest? What difficul- 
ties confronted Clark in this undertaking? 



QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES 489 

References.— DonifZ Boone: Gordy, 222-233; Guerber, 288-293; 
Southworth II, 1 16-122; Chandler and Chitwood, 121-128. Clark: Blaisdell 
and Ball, 1-17; Fiske, 154-156; Guerber, 283-288. "Traders and Hun- 
ters": Karns, 32-36. Watauga: Karns, 37-42. Robertson: Karns, 43-49. 
Sevier: Karn.s, 50-53, 94-95, 270-274. Tennessee Stories: Karns, 54-59, 
96-98. 

CHAPTER XLVI 

Map Exercises. — Find the English and Irish Channels. 

Questions. — Can you explain why Washington remained in New York 
while the British were over-running Georgia? Why was England unable 
to crush the colonies? What dangers threatened the colonists at the close 
of 1779? 

References. — War in 1779: Fiske, 156-164; Massey and Wood, 66-68. 
Stony Point: Johonnot, 166-170; Blaisdell and Ball, 77-89. John Paul 
Jones: Johonnot, 115-122; Guerber, 293-297; Southworth II, 84-92. 
"First Battle of Chickamauga": Karns, 60-65. Settlements in Middle Ten- 
nessee: Karns, 99-119. 

CHAPTER XLVII 

Map Exercises. — Find Hillsboro, Camden, Charlotte, King's Moun- 
tain, West Point. 

Definitions. — Find the meaning of pillage, mutiny, aggrieved, annihilate. 

Questions. — Why did the Patriot bands gather in the swampy country? 
What mistake was made by Gates? Why was the battle of King's Mountain 
a turning point in the war? Was Washington justified in remaining in 
New York in the winter of 1779-80? Why did not the British respect 
Arnold? Were they right in accepting Arnold's ofTer to surrender West 
Point? 

Review Exercises. — How did General Gates make his reputation as 
a commander? Make a list of all foreigners named in the text who helped 
the colonists, giving their country and their services. 

References. — War in 1780: Fiske, 164-173; Guerber, 322-315. Greene: 
Southworth II, 75-83; Gordy, 211-217; Connor, 97-101. Marion: Guer- 
ber, 297-301; Gordy, 217-220; White, 117-137; Johonnot, 126-130. 
Sumter: White, 137-144. Andreiv Pickens: White, 144-153. Arnold: 
Johonnot, 155-160; Guerber, 304-309. Tarleton: Guerber, 309-312. 
Champe: Johonnot, 160-165. King's Mountain: Karns, 66-72; Blaisdell 
and Ball, 90-104; Connor, 93-96. 

CHAPTER XLVIII 

Map Exercises. — Find Cowpens, Salisbury, Wilmington (North Caro- 
lina), Richmond, Petersburg, Yorktown, Hobkirk Hill, Eutaw Springs. 

Questions. — Why did the British withdraw to Wilmington and Charles- 
ton? W"as the British Invasion of Virginia wise? Give your reasons. 



490 OUR REPUBLIC 

Why did Cornwallis retire to Yorktown? Was it a wise move? Give 
reasons. Why could not Cornwalhs escape from Yorktown? 

Date Worth Remembering. — 1781, Cornwallis's surrender at York- 
town. 

References. — War in 1781: Fiske, 173-181; Massey and Wood, 69-74. 
Lafayette: Southworth II, 93-96. Morgan: Blaisdell and Ball, 105-122. 
Yorktown: Johonnot, 170-177; Southworth II, 60-62; Guerber, 315-323; 
Blaisdell and Ball, 123-137. 

CHAPTER XLIX 

Questions. — What were the terms of the treaty of peace? What 
arguments could the soldiers advance for making Washington king? Why 
did Washington hold his army together so long after the signing of the 
treaty of peace? What new evidences of Washington's greatness do 
you find in this chapter? How did the expression "not worth a Con- 
tinental" originate? 

Date Worth Remembering. — 1783, treaty closing the War of the 
American Revolution — England's recognition of American freedom. 

Review Exercise. — Account for the success of the colonies in the Revo- 
lutionary War. 

References. — "Our Greatest Patriot^': Blaisdell and Ball, 62-76. 
"Washington's Farewell" : Guerber, 323-326. Revolutionary Heroes and 
Heroines: Massey and Wood, 75-81. 

CHAPTER L 

Definitions. — Find the meaning of engross, concede, "face value." 

Questions. — Why is a written constitution advisable as a basis for gov- 
ernment? What caused the delay in adopting the Articles of Confedera- 
tion? What state sacrificed most for the cause of the Union? Prove your 
answer. What were the points of weakness in the Articles of Confeder- 
ation? Why were the people afraid of a strong central government? 

Review Exercise. — Compare the Confederation with the New England 
Confederacy. 

References. — The South in the Revolutionary War: Hall, 51-78. " The 
Coldwater Expedition": Karns, 130-132. Captives: Karns, 133-143. 



CHAPTER LI 

Definition. — Find meaning of hamper. 

Questions. — Why is the power to tax necessary for the success of any 
government? Why were the requests of Congress reasonable? What 
were the causes and results of the troubles in the States in this period? 
Why did Washington and others want Congress to have more power? 
How did Virginia and Maryland lead the way to the Constitutional 
Convention of 1787? 



QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES 491 

References. — Troubles of the Confederation: Fiske, 182-190; Blaisdell 
and Ball, 138-145. State of Franklin: Karns, 76-88. Settlement of Ten- 
nessee: Connor, 102-108. 

CHAPTER LII 

Definitions. — Find meaning of ratify, restrict. 

Questions.— Can you suggest a reason why Rhode Island refused to 
send delegates to the Convention of 1787? What members of this con- 
vention have already been mentioned in this text? What members have 
not been mentioned? What was the opinion of the effects of the Con- 
stitution on States rights? What were the principal provisions in the 
Ordinance for the Northwest? 

Date Worth Remembering. — 1787, the making of the Constitution 
oi the United States and the adoption of the Ordinance for the government 
of the Northwest Territory. 

Review Exercises. — Compare the methods followed in adopting the 
Constitution of 1787 with those in adopting the Articles of Confederation. 

References. — Convention of 1787: Fiske, 190-193; Blaisdell and Ball, 
145-155; Hall, 78-86. C. C. Pinckney: White, 154-160. 



CHAPTER LIII 

Questions. — What were the characteristics of the people in each of the 
different sections in 1789? Why did people move into the Northwest? 
Why did the North abolish slavery? Why did Virginia favor the anti- 
slavery clause in the Northwest Ordinance? What important inventions 
now in daily use were unknown in 1789? 

References. — Frontier Life: Mowry, 143-147; Karns, 120-129. Let- 
ters: Mowry, 260-264. "The First Teacher" in Tennessee: Karns, 73- 
75. "Curious Money": Karns, 89-93. 

CHAPTER LIV 

Questions. — WTiat did the first Congress do toward organizing the 
new Government? What causes the rise of parties? Is it possible to 
keep down political parties in a free country? How does a cabinet mem- 
ber come to hold office? What were the five features of Hamilton's 
financial policy, and what was his purpose in each? How did he succeed 
in having Congress adopt his policy of assumption of State debts? What 
were North Carolina and Rhode Island between the inauguration of 
Washington and their adoption of the Constitution? What did they 
gain by entering the Union? 

References. — Washington's Administration: Chandler and Chitwood, 
154-156. Hamilton: Southworth II, 97-107. Yazoo Fraud: Massey and 
Wood, 87-88. William Blount: Karns, 144-149. Indian Attacks: Karns, 
150-156. North Carolina: Connor, 109-115. Thomas Pinckney: White, 
161-168. 



492 OUR REPUBLIC 



CHAPTER LV 

Questions. — What are some of the arguments the RepubHcans must 
have used in opposition to Washington's neutraUty proclamation? Was 
the proclamation a wise one? What does "free ships make free goods" 
mean? What were the grievances the United States had against England 
in 1793? What were the main points in Jay's treaty? What results 
followed the invention of the cotton gin? Make a list of them. What 
arguments were made by the farmers of Pennsylvania against the tax on 
whisky? Did Washington do right to pardon those who were convicted? 
Can you think of any advice the people of the United States needed when 
Washington wrote his "Farewell Address"? Can a President and Vice 
President belong to different parties to-day? 

General Exercises. — Read Washington's "Farewell Address." Make 
a list of the important events of Washington's administrations. 

References. — Washington's Troubles: Guerber, 38-43. Eli Whitney: 
Southworth II, 123-126; Mowry, 148-152; Massey and Wood, 138-140. 
Admission of Tennessee: Karns, 157-160, 173-175. 

CHAPTER LVI 

Definitions. — Find the meaning of tribute, naturalization, anarchy. 

Questions. — Why did France consider Jay's treaty "an unfriendly 
act" ? What did Pinckney mean by his reply to the "X. Y. Z." proposi- 
tion? What was the cause of the new naturalization law? Of the Alien 
and Sedition Laws? What was the substance of the Kentucky and 
Virginia Resolutions? Why are they important documents? Why did 
Maryland present the District of Columbia to the Federal Government 
for a capital? What predictions were made by the political parties in the 
election of 1800? How and why did this election affect the Constitution? 

Review Exercise. — Make a list of the important events of Adams's 
administration. 

References. — Life on the Frontier: Karns, 161-167, 176-178, 216-225, , 
229-231, 235-247, 256-258. 

CHAPTER LVII 

Questions. — What political principles did Jefferson advocate? What 
were his policies as President? Can you suggest a reason why the port of 
New Orleans was closed? Did Napoleon act wisely in selling Louisiana? ' 
Give reasons for your answer. How were western explorations bene- 
ficial to the Government? What were some of the changes brought about 
by the introduction of the steamboat? 

Date Worth Remembering. — 1803, the purchase of the Louisiana 
Territory. 

References. — Jefferson's Administration: Southworth II, 111-115;!; 
Chandler and Chitwood, 181-186; Gordy, 240-244. Barhary Wars: Blais- 
dell and Ball, 156-168; Chandler and Chitwood, 192-200; Southworth, 
II, 145-148. 



QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES 493 



CHAPTER LVIII 

Questions.— What methods did Jefferson adopt in his efforts to avoid 
war with England? With France? Do you think he was successful in 
any of these efforts? Were they wise? What effects did the Embargo 
have on New England? Why? What was the difference between the 
Embargo and the Non-Intercourse Act? 

Review Exercises. — Make a list of important events in Jefferson's 
administration. Which was the most important? 

References. — Fulton: Gordy, 246-252; Chandler and Chitwood, 187- 
191; Southworth II, 127-133. Steamboats: Mo wry, 207-214. Jefferson's 
Troubles: Guerber, 69-71. 

CHAPTER LIX 

Questions. — What impression do you get from this chapter about 
Napoleon's sense of honor? Why was the use of Indians in warfare con- 
demned by the civiUzed world? Why did the South and the West favor 
a declaration of war against England? Why did the North oppose it? 
Would any one of the five reasons for the war be sufficient to bring on war 
to-day? Can you think of any reason why New England should oppose 
the admission of Louisiana as a state? 

Reference. — Tecumseh and the Creek War: Karns, 182-192. 

CHAPTER LX 

Map Exercises. — Find Detroit, Niagara, Lake Champlain, Queenstown, 
Ogdensburg, Frenchtown, Thames River (Canada), Lake Erie, Lake 
Ontario, Sackett's Harbor, Newark (New York). 

Questions. — What was the importance of each of the expeditions 
planned for the invasion of Canada? What were the reasons for the 
failure of these expeditions? Were there any reasons in the causes of 
the war which made Americans fight better on the sea than on the land? 
Who were the heroes of the first year of the war? What ought Proctor 
to have done when the Indians attacked the American prisoners at French- 
town? Why was the destruction of the British fleet on Lake Erie an event 
of great importance? Why is it disgraceful to burn public buildings in 
war? Are there any exceptions? Why were the frontiersmen good 
soldiers? 

Date Worth Remembering. — 1813, beginning of the second war with 
England. 

References. — Perry: Johonnot, 177-186; Southworth II, 140-144; 
Guerber, 80-86. "Old Ironsides": Blaisdell and Ball, 169-184. 

CHAPTER LXI 

Map Exercises. — Find Plattsburg, Bladensburg. 

Questions. — What connection was there between Brown's invasion of 
Canada and Prevost's invasion of the United States? What were the 



494 OUR REPUBLIC 

results of these invasions? Did the English have any excuse for burning 
the Capitol at Washington? Give your reasons. How do you account 
for Jackson's successes in war? How did the peace between England 
and France remove the principal causes of the War of 1812? 

Review Exercise. — Make a list of heroes of the War of 1812 and give 
the services rendered by each. 

References. — Jackson and New Orleans: Gordy, 253-260; Karns, 195- 
209; Southworth II, 149-156; Chandler and Chitwood, 201-207; Blais- 
dell and Ball, 185-198; Johonnot, 192-198. " The Star-Spangled Banner": 
Johonnot, 187-192. 



CHAPTER LXII 

Questions. — What were the political results of the War of 1812? Which 
section of the United States derived the greatest benefit from the war? 
Explain your answer. Name and explain the financial results of this war. 
Were they all beneficial to the South? Explain your answer. 

Review Exercises. — Name the Presidents, up to 1816, who had re- 
fused a third term of office. Make a list of the Presidents to this time, 
giving the place and year of birth, time of service as President, and party 
connections. Make a list of the principal events of Madison's adminis- 
tration. 

References.— TAe South in the War of 1812: Hall, 86-90. North Caro- 
lina: Connor, 116-120. 



CHAPTER LXIII 

Map Exercises. — Find St. Marks, Pensacola, Lake of the Woods. 

Questions. — What section of the country had the greatest power in 
Monroe's cabinet? (No attempt should be made to learn the names of 
cabinet officers.) Do you think the United States was justified in waging 
war against the Seminoles? Can you defend Jackson's seizure of Florida? 
His execution of the two English subjects? Why was the sale of Florida 
a wise act on the part of Spain? Can you suggest a reason why the pop- 
ulation of Mississippi increased more rapidly that that of Alabama? How 
do the first settlers generally enter a country? What caused the Mis- 
souri Compromise? Why was this Compromise favorable to the North? 
(See which section gained the more territory.) What caused the Monroe 
IDoctrine to be put forth? What were some of the results? Was this doc- 
trine wise? Was it just to Europe? How does a protective tariff injure 
an agricultural section? 

Dates Worth Remembering. — 1820, the adoption of the Missouri 
Compromise; 1833, the first assertion of the Monroe Doctrine. 

References.— Lafayei/e's Visit: Blaisdell and Ball, 199-216; Connor, 
121-122. William Lowndes: White, 169-174. Langdon Cheves : White, 
174-178. 



QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES 495 



CHAPTER LXIV 

Definitions. — Find the meaning of elaborate, veto, primitive, democratic, 
supreme, transportation, facilities, monopolize, retain, supremacy . 

Questions. — What was the principal cause of the growth of population 
in the East? What class of Southerners were first to move into the West? 
What motives led people to the West? What dangers did the pioneers 
face? What hardships? What internal improvements were planned in 
this period? What is meant by "national spirit"? What caused such 
a spirit to develop in the West? Did this conflict with the idea of State 
sovereignty? Why did the Northern States abolish slavery? Why did 
they at first favor continuing it in the South? Why did the South favor 
it? What effect upon the poorer classes did slavery have? Manufactur- 
ing? Immigration? Was education neglected in the South? Prove your 
answer. 

Review Exercise.— Make a list of the States that had been admitted 
into the Union by 1820, giving the dates of their admission and noting 
whether they were slave or free. 

General Exercise. — Describe a canal. 

References. — Canals: Mowry, 215-222. Growth of Tennessee: Karns, 
179-181. 

CHAPTER LXV 

Questions. — Was there any justice in the complaints over Jackson's 
defeat in the Presidential campaign of 1824? Can you defend Adams's 
actions in regard to the Indian trouble in Georgia? What can you say in 
defense of Governor Troup? What was "the taritT of abominations"? 
What was advocated by the parties headed by Adams and Jackson? 

References. — Henry Clay: Southworth II, 158-165; Chandler and 
Chitwood, 225-232. Indian Troubles in Georgia: Massey and Wood, 
89-93. 

CHAPTER LXVI 

Definitions. — Find the meaning of prejudice, accord, privation, emanci- 
pation, nullify. 

Questions. — How do you account for the success of Jackson as Presi- 
dent? Name some of his weaknesses. Can you prove that the South 
cared little about the slavery question before 1832? What caused Southern 
sentiment to change on this subject? Why did Northern people mob 
Abolitionists at first? Why did the South charge the Abolitionists with 
causing Nat Turner's Rebellion? What means were used by the Aboli- 
tionists for spreading their ideas? What was the point at issue in the 
Webster-Hayne debate? What new parties and methods originated in 
the campaign of 1832? 

Review Exercise. — Prove that Northern sentiment about the Union 
had changed since the Hartford Convention. 



496 OUR REPUBLIC 

References. — Jackson and His Administration: Southworth II, 156- 
157; Gordy, 260-262; Karns, 168-172. Daniel Webster: Chandler and 
Chitwood, 233-240; Southworth II, 166-175; Gordy, 264-271. R. Y. 
Haijne: White, 185-188. McDuffie: White, 179-185. 



CHAPTER LXVII 

Definitions. — Find the meaning of pacificator, currency, indignant, 
security, redeem. 

Questions. — What did Jackson say about the object of nullification? 
Do you think this statement is correct? Why? What were the principal 
incidents connected with the nullification controversy? What were 
Jackson's objections to the National Bank? What did he intend should 
be the effect of his "Specie Circular"? What caused the panic of 1837? 
Was the "independent treasury" system better than the National Bank? 
Why? What were the causes of Van Buren's defeat? 

Review Exercises. — -Compare the first and second Seminole Wars 
as to causes and results. Make a list of important events since 1820. 

References. — Calhoun: Chandler and Chitwood, 241-246; White, 188- 
205. Childhood of Robert E. Lee: Williamson I, 9-16. Childhood of 
^'Stonewall" Jackson: Williamson II, 9-23. Nathaniel Macon: Connor, 
123-125. 



CHAPTER LXVIII 

Map Exercises. — Find Cumberland (Maryland), Wheeling, Lowell 
(Massachusetts). 

Definitions. — Find the meaning of macadamized, sickle, flail, tinder-box. 

Questions. — What changes of population took place between 1830 and 
1840? Which of these changes can you account for? Was the Cumber- 
land Road as beneficial to Maryland as to Kentucky? Prove your answer. 
How did the introduction of the steamboat help the farmer? The mer- 
chant? The immigrant? What are the important facts in the early 
history of the Erie Canal? What checked the rapid progress of canal 
building? What new methods were introduced between 1820 and 1840 
for the more rapid transmission of news? Can you suggest any reasons .] 
why the farmers were slow to accept McCormick's harvester? Give an 
account of the development of manufacturing in this period. Since 1840 
what changes have taken place in city life? In country life? What were 
the greatest reforms of this period? 

References.— 72a?7roads.- Southworth II, 135-139; Mowry, 223-228. 
Erie Canal: Southworth II, 176-179. Telegraph ami Signaling: South- | 
worth II, 180-185; Mowry, 265-277; Chandler and Chitwood, 247-251; j| 
Gordy, 273-281. Reaper: Mowry, 117-123; Chandler and Chitwood, 
251-254; Southworth II, 249-251. The Savannah: Massey and Wood, 
136-137. Progress in North Carolina: Connor, 126-133. 



QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES 497 



CHAPTER LXIX 

Map Exercises. — Find Great Salt Lake, Goliad, San Antonio, San 
Jacinto. Trace the line 54° 40' from the Rocky Mountains to the Pacific 
Ocean. 

Questions. — Ought President Tyler to have carried out the Whig 
policy? Why? What did Webster accomplish by remaining in Tyler's 
cabinet? What minor incidents occurred in Tyler's administration? 
Why are they worthy of passing notice? Why did Mexico forbid the im- 
portation of slaves into Texas? What idea do you get of the character 
of the Mexicans in 1836? Of the character of the Texans? Would the 
annexation of Texas have injured the North? Explain your answer. 
What prevented Van Buren's nomination in 1844? What defeated Clay 
in this election? 

References. — Sayn Houston: Chandler and Chitwood, 208-216; Nolan 
and Bean: Littlejohn, 59-80. Austin and His Settlement: Littlejohn, 83- 
102. Sam Houston and Lamar: Littlejohn, 105-132; Karns, 210-215. 
David Crockett: Littlejohn, 135-147; Karns, 226-228, 248-255. The 
Alamo: Littlejohn, 151-162. Goliad: Littlejohn, 165-174. San Jacinto: 
Littlejohn, 177-193. "Drawing the Black Beans": Littlejohn, 197-208. 
"Castle Perotc": Littlejohn, 211-238. 

CHAPTER LXX 

Map Exercises. — Find Nueces River, Rio Grande, Monterey, Buena 
Vista, Vera Cruz, Mexico City, Santa Fe. 

Questions. — How did the Oregon question originate? How was it 
settled? Why did Mexico oppose the annexation of Texas to the United 
States? Was Polk correct in saying that Mexico had "invaded our ter- 
ritory" ? What were the most important battles of the Mexican War? 

Date Worth Remembering. — 1845-48, War with Mexico. 

General Discussion. — What makes an event important in history? 

References. — Polk and the Mexican War: Karns, 259-262. Zachary 
Taylor: Chandler and Chitwood, 217-224. Buena Vista: Johonnot, 199- 
206. Georgia and the Mexican War: Massey and Wood, 94-95. South 
Carolina and the Mexican War: White, 206-209. 

CHAPTER LXXI 

Map Exercises. — Find Cape Horn, Isthmus of Panama. 

Questions. — What were the dangers encountered by the overland 
route to California? What were the disadvantages of the Panama route? 
Of the route around Cape Horn? What caused prices to advance in 
California? Why did Southerners favor the " Gag Law " ? Were they right? 
Was the Wilmot' Proviso wise? Was it just? Why? What strange facts 
are to be noted about the Presidential campaign of 1848? 

References. — The South in the Mexican W^ar: Hall, 90-97. Ecrlij 
Manhood of Robert E. Lee: Williamson I, 18-43. 



498 OUR REPUBLIC 



CHAPTER LXXII 

QtTESTiONS. — What controversy arose upon the application of California 
for admission to the Union? What were the five provisions in Clay's 
compromise measure? In the debate, what did Clay contribute? Calhoun? 
Webster? Chase? How did the first three of these speeches agree? 
How did they differ? Why did the Abolitionists object to the fugitive 
slave law? Could the slave States afTord to surrender their constitutional 
right to demand such a law? Why? 

Date Worth Remembering. — 1850, adoption of the great Com- 
promise. 

References. — "The South in Olden Days^': Hall, 15-27. Earlr Man- 
hood of " StonewalV^ Jackson: Williamson II, 25-77. 



CHAPTER LXXIII 

Questions. — Which section first violated the Compromise of 1850? 
What were the " personal liberty laws" ? Compare these with the attempt 
at nullification by South Carolina. What was the "Underground Rail- 
road" ? What were the methods and the effects of its operations? What 
was "Uncle Tom's Cabin," and what effects did it produce throughout the 
North? Can you think of any way in which the North might have been 
induced to observe an effective fugitive slave law? Did the North know 
the real condition of slave life in the South? 

Memory Gv:m.—" The South'' : WilHamson I, 181-183. 



CHAPTER LXXIV 

Questions. — What part of the Union wanted more territory? Why? 
What was meant by "squatter sovereignty" ? Was it just? Do you 
think the Compromise of 1850 annulled the Compromise of 1820? (Re- 
view these in the text.) Would you have voted for the Kansas-Nebraska 
Bill? Why? What was the plan of each section for getting control of 
Kansas? What were the results? Which constitution of Kansas should 
have been accepted? 

Reference.—" The Sunny South": Williamson II, 247-248. 



CHAPTER LXXV 

Questions. — What were the methods and objects of the Know-Nothing 
Party? What were the sharp points of difference between the Democratic 
and Republican parties of 1856? What did this election show? How did 
the Dred Scott case originate? What was the decision of the Supreme 
Court? What were the causes and results of the Lincoln-Douglas debates? 
What were the plans of John Brown and what did he do? What was the 
effect of his execution on the North? What do you think of Brown? 



QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES 499 

Review Exercises. — Make a full list of "dates worth remembering" 
in American history to 1860, giving the reasons why each is important. 

References. — Slavery in Georgia: Massey and Wood, 100-103. Early 
Causes of Estrangement: Hall, 146-162. 

CHAPTER LXXVI 

Definitions. — Find the meaning of competition, trunk-line, transpor- 
tation. 

Questions. — What caused the rapid increase of population in the North 
between 1840-60? How did competition affect ocean travel? Make a 
list of the improvements in railway transportation and of their effects. 
What great developments were made in telegraphic communication? In 
mail facilities? What inventions of this period have you seen? What 
have you not seen? Describe those you have seen. What proof can 
you give of the great progress of manufacturing from 1840-60? What 
results followed this development? 

References. — Water Travel: Mowry, 229-234. Atlantic Cable: Mowry, 
278-285. Sewing: Mowry, 172-184. Food: Mowry, 124-140. Light: 
Mowry, 77-84. Printing: Mowry, 252-257. Postal System: Mowry, 
260-264. Ether: Massey and Wood, 137-138. 

CHAPTER LXXVII 

Definition. — Find the meaning of platform (political). 

Questions. — What caused divisions among Democrats in 1860? What 
were the main points in the Republican platform? Why were the views 
of Douglas not acceptable to the North? To the South? 

References. — "The Greatest Cause of Estrangement" : Hall, 162-181. 
" The Three Sections" of Georgia: Massey and Wood, 96-99. 

CHAPTER LXXVIII 

Definitions. — Find meaning of compact, hazard, pecuniary. 

Questions. — What was the immediate effect of the election of Lincoln? 
Why did Southern men leave the service of the United States when their 
States seceded? What is meant by "the path of our fathers" in the 
quotation from Davis's farewell address? What is meant by treason? 
What is the difference between nuUification and secession? 

References. — Jefferson Darns: Chandler and Chitwood, 259-263. 
Abraham Lincoln: Chandler and Chitwood, 265-273; Gordy, 282-300; 
Southworth II, 186-205. 

CHAPTER LXXIX 

Questions. — Can you prove that the States were free to accept or 
reject the Constitution? What evidence do you find that, when the 
Constitution was adopted, it was thought the States had a right to secede 



600 OUR REPUBLIC 

at pleasure? What evidence can you show that many Northern leaders 
believed in the right of secession? How can you account for the growth 
of sentiment against secession? Can you prove that slavery was not the 
cause of secession? What arguments can you give against secession? 
In favor of it? If you had lived in 1861, would you have favored secession? 
Give reasons in full. 

References. — Right of Secession: Hall, 181-192. Effects of Secession: 
Southworth II, 206-209. 



CHAPTER LXXX 

Questions. — Why was the Confederate flag called the "Stars and 
Bars"? Can you prove from the sketch of Davis's life in the footnote 
that he was patriotic? As far as you can judge from the facts given in 
this chapter was the Confederate Constitution better than the Constitu- 
tion of the United States? Was Buchanan's recommendation practical? 
What were the main features of the Crittenden Compromise? Why did 
the Northern senators defeat this measure? Why did Virginia want to 
save the Union? Why was her effort unsuccessful? 

Date Worth Remembering. — 1861, formation of the Southern Con- 
federacy. 

References.—" The War": Hall, 192-196. "Confederate Battle Flag": 
McCarthy, 225-230. Brown arid Stephens: Massey and Wood, 106-109. 



CHAPTER LXXXI 

Definitions. — Find the meaning of arsenal, aggressor, coercion. 

Questions. — Did South Carolina want war? Give reasons for your 
answer. Was the State militia justified in firing on the Star of the West? 
Did the seceding States have a right to Federal property within their 
borders? Was the seizure of this property wise? Was it possible for 
Lincoln to carry out, without war, the views expressed in his inaugural 
address? 

Reference. — The Private Soldier and the Sailor: Hall, 197-208. 

CHAPTER LXXXII 

Definitions. — Find the meaning of tolerate. What is the difference 
between rebellion and revolution f 

Questions. — Who was responsible for the attack on Fort Sumter? 
Prove your answer. Can you justify Lincoln's connection with this in- 
cident? Davis's connection with it? Can you find evidence to show 
that Lincoln did not think that the country was entering the greatest 
conflict in its history? Why did other Southern States join the Con- 
federacy? 

General Exercise. — Tell, without prompting, the story of "the be- 
ginning of the conflict." 



QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES 501 

Date Worth Remembering. — April 12, 1861, the attack on Fort 
Sumter. 

References. — "Women of the Confederacy^' : Hall, 215-239. North 
Carolina: Connor, 133-137. Francis W. Pickens: White, 216-223. 
Bonham: White, 224-231. 

CHAPTER LXXXni 

Definition. — What is meant by material resources f 

Questions. — How did the population of the two nations compare? 
How did the South expect to overcome her lack of material resources? 
Was this hope reasonable? How was the execution of the plan pre- 
vented? How did the South expect to overcome her financial disadvan- 
tage? 

Reference.— "r/ie Ho7nes That Made Heroes": Hall, 98-123 

CHAPTER LXXXIV 

Map Exercises. — Find Hampton Roads, Manassas, Springfield 
(Missouri). 

Definitions. — Find the meaning of aggressive, canteen, frenzy, ghastly, 
demented, frantic. 

Questions. — Why was each plan of action adopted by the Federal 
Government important? Which would you expect would be attempted 
first? Do you think the capture of Richmond in 1861 would have ended 
the war? Give reasons for your answer. To what do you attribute the 
success of the Confederates in the first battle of Manassas? To what do 
you attribute the panic that seized the Federal soldiers after their defeat? 

References.--" T/ie Homes That Made Heroes": Hall, 123-145. 
"Stonewall" Jackson: Williamson II, 78-117. 

CHAPTER LXXXV 

Map Exercises. — Find Nassau, Havana. 

Questions. — Why did Lincoln look upon Confederate privateersmen as 
pirates? Was President Davis's answer wise and just? What attitude 
(lid the Confederate Government expect England to assume in this war? 
Why? What were the principal events in the career of the Alabama? 
Give an account of the Trent affair. Why was England offended? 

References. — "Voice from the Ranks": McCarthy, 7-21. Lincoln and 
the War: Southworth II, 209-212. 

CHAPTER LXXXVI 

Map Exercises. — Find the places mentioned in this chapter. Trace 
the movements of McClellan in the Peninsula Campaign and of Jackson in 
his Valley Campaign. 



502 OUR REPUBLIC 

Questions. — What were the principal events in McClellan's Peninsula 
Campaign? What were the plans for the movement of the other Federal 
armies? How were they frustrated ? What was the most important 
battle in the Peninsula Campaign ? Why ? What caused the failure of 
the Federal plans in this campaign? What brought success to the Con- 
federates? 

References. — Peninsula Campaign : Guerber, 193-197. " The Outfit 
Modified": McCarthy, 22-34. Robert E. Lee: Southworth II, 229-237; 
Chandler and Chitwood, 274-280; Littlejohn, 259-282. ''Lee and His 
Paladins": Hall, 240-252. '' Stonewall" Jackson: Williamson II, 119-173. 
Maxy Gregg: White, 231-238. 

CHAPTER LXXXVII 

Questions. — What effects followed the failure of the Peninsula Cam- 
paign? Why did Lee wish to carry the war into the North? What dis- 
appointments came to both the South and the North as a result of Lee's 
first invasion of the North? Why was the battle of Sharpsburg, or An- 
tietam, important? What great mistake did Burnside make at Freder- 
icksburg? What was the result? 

Review Exercises. — Make a list of the different commanders at the 
head of the Union army in the East. Of those at the head of the Con- 
federate army. Make a list of Confederate victories. Of Federal victories. 

References. — " Romantic I deas Dissipated" : McCarthy, 35-40. ''On 
the March": McCarthy, 47-61. Robert E. Lee: Williamson I, 45-61. 
" Stoneicdll" Jacksoii: Williamson II, 175-193. 



CHAPTER LXXXVIII 

Map Exercises. — Find Columbus (Kentucky), Tennessee River, Cum- 
berland River, Cairo, Nashville, Corinth, Tupelo. 

Questions. — What was the plan of action of the Federals in Kentucky 
and Tennessee in 1862? Of the Confederates? Why were the forts con- 
trolling the Tennessee and Cumberland rivers important? What was 
the turning point in Grant's career? What saved him from disgrace? 
Was he right? What saved him from being captured at Shiloh? What 
territory was gained by the Federals in Kentucky and Tennessee in 1862? 

References. — Shiloh and its Heroes": HnW, 262-265. " Cooking and 
Eating": McCarthy, 62-78. 

CHAPTER LXXXIX 

Map Exercises. — Find New Madrid, Port Hudson, Vicksburg, Algiers, 
Holly Springs, Louisville, Perryville, Chattanooga, Murfreesboro, Grenada. 

Questions. — Why was the Mississippi River a source of weakness to 
the Confederacy? Would this have been the case if the South had had a 
powerful navy? How was the upper part of the river taken by the Fed- 
erals? The lower part? Why was the loss of New Orleans a great dis- 



QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES 503 

aster to the South? Why (Hd tlic people of New Orleans deiiouiu-e Butler? 
Why was Vicksburg more difficult to capture than New Orleans? (Vicks- 
burg is called the "Hill City.") What was the plan of th(! second cam- 
paign against Vicksburg? Why did it fail? What caused the failure of 
Hragg's i:)lan to retake Kentucky? Tennessee? Why was the battle of 
Corinth fought? 

Review Exercises.— Conii)are the exploit of the Arkansas with that 
of the Merrimac. What was the greatest Confederate victory in the West 
in 1862? The greatest defeat? 

References. — "Comforts," etc.: McCarthy, 79-99. Farruyut: South- 
worth, II, 238-24S; Karns, 232-234. 

CHAPTER XC 

Definitions. — Find the meaning of })rom.isKi)nj note, liahcis corpus, 
eiiiancipalion, quell. 

Questions. — Why wen^ coffee and sugar sc^arcc in the South at the 
close of 1862? How did the National banks bring money into the Federal 
treasury? What did Europeans think aliout the chances for Confederate 
success in 1863? What were the three conditions in the North which 
were unfavorable to the Federal Government? Explain eac-h. What 
early efforts did Lincoln make to abolish slavery in the four slave-holding 
states still in the Union? Why did he issue the Emancipation Proclama- 
tion? Was it lawful? On what grounds did Lincoln defend his act? 
How could the slaves have put a speedy end to the war? Were the Con- 
scrii)tion Law and the Draft Act just? Why were they necessary? 

References. — " Fun and Fury": McCarthy, 100-122. North Carolina: 
Connor, 138-154. 

CHAPTER XCI 

Questions. — Why was it difficult for Grant's army to reach the high- 
lands of north Vicksburg? Why did Grant try to change the course of 
the Mississippi River? Why did he cross the Mississippi with part of his 
army? Did he accomplish his object after entering the State of Mississippi 
Why did he besiege Vicksburg? Could he have taken the city any other 
way? What took place in the city during the siege? Why did it sur- 
render? Was this step wise? Was Grant angry with the people of the 
city for resisting him? What were the causes and the results of the battle 
of Chickamauga? Of Lookout Mountain? Of Missionary Ridge? What 
caused the success of the Federals in the West in 1863? Can you suggest a 
reason for Morgan's raid? Why do you admire the conduct of Sam 
Davis? 

References. — "Camp Fircn": McCarthy, 200-224. Dich Dowliiuj 
and Dr. Bailey: Littlejohn, 241-255. 

CHAPTER XCII 

Map Exercises. — Find the Rappahannock River, Harper's Ferry, 
Harrisburg, Gettysburg. 



504 OUR REPUBLIC 

Definitions. — Find the meaning of anguish, gory, irreparable. 

Questions.- — For what is the battle of Chancellorsville noted? Why- 
was Lee anxious to carry the war into the North? What were the main 
incidents in the battle of Gettysburg? What was the effect of this battle 
on the North? On the South? In Europe? 

Date Worth Remembering. — July 4, 1863, surrender of Vicksburg 
and battle of Gettysburg. 

References. — "Jackson and His ' Fooi-Cavalry'": Hall, 253-261. 
'"StonewaW Jackson Mortally Woiinded": William.son II, 244-245. 
"'Stonewall ' Jackson's Way": Williamson II, 248-250. "Stonewall" 
Jackson: Williamson II, 194-238. Robert E. Lee: Williamson I, 62-70. 
Samuel McGowan: White, 239-244. Joseph B. Kennebrew: White, 244- 
250. 

CHAPTER XCIII 

Map Exercises. — Find Dalton, Mobile. 

Definitions. — Find the meaning of goal, evacuate, disperse. 

Questions. — What were Grant's plans for ending the war? Why were 
most of the Confederate troops taken from Mississippi after the fall of 
Vicksburg? Why did Sherman lay waste the country between Vicksburg 
and Meridian? Was he right in doing so? Did the fighting in Louisiana 
at this time exert much influence upon the final outcome of the struggle? 
What is a flank movement? Was Johnston right in refusing to attack 
Sherman? Give reasons for your answer. What plans did Hood try to 
execute? What were the results? Was Sherman justified in the de- 
struction of property in his march to the sea? Why? What was the 
condition of Southern seaports at the end of 1864? 

References. — U. S. Grant: Southworth II, 217-228; Chandler and 
Chitwood, 280-287; Gordy, 302-313. Sherman in Georgia: Massey and 
Wood, 112-115. 

CHAPTER XCIV 

Map Exercises. — Find Rapidan River, Spottsylvania, Cold Harbor. 

Definitions. — Find the meaning of penetrate, tunnel, crater. 

Questions. — What was Grant's plan for capturing Richmond? What 
valuable facts about warfare do you find in the account of the battles of 
Spottsylvania? What advantages did Grant have over Lee? Lee over 
Grant? What moves were made to cut off Lee's supplies? What services 
were rendered by Magruder and Early? 

References. — Lincoln and the War: Southworth II, 212-216. "The 
Phantom Host": Williamson II, 250-254. Robert E. Lee: Williamson I, 
70-89. 

CHAPTER XCV 

Definitions. — Find the meaning of parole, humanity. 
Questions. — What political parties arose in the North in 1864? Who 
were their Presidential nominees and what were their platforms? What 



QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES 505 

was the first agreement about exchanging prisoners? What brought it to 
an end? Was the position of the South on this matter wise? Prove your 
answer. Was the proposition of August, 1864, just? Which side had 
the greater number of prisoners? The more provisions? Which side lost 
more men in prison? What conclusions are to be drawn from these facts? 
References. — Robert E. Lee: Wilhamson I, 90-98, 169. Anderson- 
ville: Massey and Wood, 111. ''The Bivouac of the Dead" : Williamson II, 
245-246. " The Lone Sentry": Williamson II, 239-240. 

CHAPTER XCVI 

Map Exercises. — Find Goldsboro, Raleigh. 

Definitions. — Find the meaning of cope, assassination, detain. 

Questions. — What were the Federal plans in 1865? The Confederate 
plans? What were the last movements of Lee's army? Why did he 
surrender? Could he have done anything else? Were Lee and Grant 
personal enemies? Was Grant a personal enemy of the Confederate 
soldiers? Were the Confederate and Federal soldiers personal enemies? 
Why were they fighting? Why did Lee's men love him? Describe the 
parting scene. Why was the assassination of Lincoln a great disaster? 
Was Davis a traitor? 

Review Exercise. — Make a list of the most important battles of the 
war, giving the significance of each. 

References. — "Improvised Infantry": McCarthy, 123-164. "After 
the Surrender" : Massey and Wood, 118-121. Robert E. Lee: Williamson 
I, 99-102. Micah Jenkins: White, 250-253. Nathan Evans: White, 
254^256. Wade Hampton: White, 261-279. 

CHAPTER XCVII 

Questions. — What were the enlistments and death losses of the war to 
the North? To the South? What were the property losses of the war 
to the North? To the South? In what ways was money raised? What 
are bonds? Greenbacks? Why is paper money worth more now than 
it was in 1865? 

General Exercises. — Write a brief sketch of one of the following: 
The effects of the war on your country; the part that your grandfather 
or a neighbor took in the conflict; the experiences of your grandmother or 
of some other lady during this period; a ruined plantation at the close of 
the war. Make a list of the ways in which the South suffered more than 
the North. 

References. — "Homeward Bound": McCarthy, 165-182. Georgia's 
Losses: Massey and Wood, 116-117. "Conclusion": Hall, 305-310. 

CHAPTER XCVIII 

Definitions. — Find the meaning of depreciate, ferret, evade, privation. 
Questions. — What services were rendered the Confederacy by the 
women of the South, and what hardships did they endure? Why was salt 



506 OUR REPUBLIC 

morp precious at one time than meal? Make a list of substitutes that 
were used for well-known articles of food; for printing paper and stationery. 
Can you account for the faithfulness of the slaves during the war? How 
did the women at home feel over the news of the surrender? What did 
the Confederate soldiers do when they returned home after the war? 

Review Exercise. — Make a list of "dates worth remembering," from 
1860-65, noting particularly the reason why each is important. 

Reference. — "Soldiers Transformed^' : McCarthy, 183-199. 

Memory Gf.m.—" The Conquered Banner": Williamson I, 175. 

CHAPTER XCIX 

Definitions. — Find the meaning of amnesty, vagrancy. 

Questions. — How were the Southern white people treated after the 
war? What had been done for the negro before the close of the war? 
What theories were advanced on the relation of the Southern States to the 
Union? Which seems most reasonable? On what condition did Lincoln 
think the States should be readmitted? What conditions did Johnson 
impose? What were the reasons for opposing the President's plan? Were 
the laws to control freedmen in the South wise? Were they just? Could 
they have been avoided? 

References. — "The South since the War'\- Hall, 266-274. Johnson: 
Karns, 263-269. 

CHAPTER C 

Definitions. — Find the meaning of impeach, misdemeanor. 

Questions. — What can you say in defense of the Freedman's Bureau? 
Against it? What was the object of the Civil Right's Bill? The Thirteenth 
Amendment? The Fourteenth Amendment? Were these acts wise? 
Why were they favored by the North? What reasons can you find in the 
latter part of this chapter for the passage of the Tenure-of-Office Act? 
Why did the North give the negro the right to vote in the South? What 
motive prompted Stevens's actions? What caused the carpetbaggers to 
settle in the South? To what extent did they care for the interests of the 
Southern States? What was the status of the several Southern States 
when they ratified the Fourteenth Amendment? 

References. — Reconstruction: Massey and Wood, 122-128. " The 
South since the War ": Hall, 275-304. 

CHAPTER CI 

Questions. — How did Napoleon III violate the Monroe Doctrine? 
Why did he do it? Why did the United States object? Do you think the 
purchase of Alaska was a wise step? Why? Which ticket do you think 
you would have voted in 1868? Why? 

Reference. — "Poets of South Carolina ami of the South": Wliite, 
282-289. 



QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES SO- 



CHAPTER CII 

Definitions. Find the meaning of arbitration, award, tragic, prostrate, 
shroud, agony, superstitious, atrocities. 

Questions. — What two groat forces had the effect of reducing the size 
of the United States and of the world? What two disputes were settled 
by arbitration? Why is this method of settling disputes superior to war? 
What classes of white Republicans were there in the South? What was 
the moral difference between them? What were the causes and the results 
of the presence of negroes in Southern legislatures? Why was the Ku 
Klux organized? Describe its methods. Why was the Klux successful? 
W'hat were the objects and results of the "Force Acts" ? How did they 
resemble the Fifteenth Amendment? What was the political condition 
of the country in the campaign of 1872? 

References.— Dm</i and Character of Robert E. Lee: Williamson I, 103- 
167. Reconstruction: White, 290-297. 

CHAPTER cm 

Definitions. — Find the meaning of demonetize, balance of trade, standard 
of value, unprecedented, specie, indemnity. 

Questions. — What were the causes and results of the great i)anic of 
1S73? What effect would reducing the sujiply of money have on prices? 
What great scandals arose in Grant's administration? E^xpluin eaf^li. 
What were the causes and results of Indian troubles? Why was paper 
money worth less than specie before 1875? Does any country own th(! 
"high seas" ? How do the Virginius and the Trent affairs resemble each 
other? What were the differences between parties and platforms in 1872 
and 1876? What was the cause of the contested election? Why was a 
special commission created to settle the case? Which candidate had the 
better claim on the Presidency? 

Review Exercise. — Make a list of the important events in Grant's 
administration. 

D.\TE Worth Remembering. — 1876, Haycs-Tilden contested election 
and appointment of electoral commission. 

CHAPTER CIV 

Questions. — Why were Federal troops in the South a great curse? 
What- important sc^rvice did Mississippi render to the South in 1890? What 
can you say in defense of labor organizations? Of the strikes? Against 
them? What pn^vents the election of a President for a third term? What 
is the origin and object of the Civil Service Commission? What objec- 
tions are urged against a low tariff? What caused the election of Cleve- 
land in 1884? 

Dates Worth Remembering. — 1877, withdrawal of Federal troops from 
the South; 1890, Mississippi Constitution disfranchizing negroes. 

Reference. — " Obseri'ations of 'StoneivaWs' Servant": Williamson II, 
240-243, 



508 OUR REPUBLIC 



CHAPTER CV 

Questions. — Why was each law mentioned in the first section important? 
What are the causes of strikes? Why are anarchists dangerous to our 
country? Is a strong navy important? Why? What were the condi- 
tions that caused Cleveland to propose a reduction of the tariff in 1887? 
Was he wise in this? What was the reason for each of the laws passed 
by Congress in 1888? How did the People's Party originate? What did 
it stand for in 1892? Which of these measures do you think were wise? 
Unwise? Give reasons. 

Reference. — North Carolina since the War: Connor, 155-169. 



CHAPTER CVI 

Map Exercises. — Find Hawaii, Venezuela. 

Questions. — What were the causes of the panic of 1893? Explain 
each. Why was there opposition to the repeal of the Sherman Act? Who 
was responsible for the Democratic defeat in 1894? Why? Why did 
Cleveland refuse to annex Hawaii? What was the cause and the result 
of the Bering Sea controversy? Was Cleveland right in his position on 
the Venezuelan affair? What was the principal issue in the campaign of 
1896 and what position did the different parties take? 

CHAPTER CVn 

Map Exercises. — Find Tampa, Santiago, Porto Rico, Philippines, 
Guam, Wake Island, Samoa. 

Definitions. — Find the meaning of notorious, grasping, resent, disclaim, 
vie, collier. 

Questions. — Can you think of any reasons why Spain oppressed Cuba? 
Did the United States have any right to try to relieve suffering in Cuba 
in 1897? What would have been the result if England had attempted 
to relieve suffering in the South in 1864? Would the United States have 
been justified in declaring war on account of the Maine disaster? Why 
did the United States announce that it would not hold Cuba? Why was 
the battle of Manila important? 

References. — Leaders in the Spanish-American War: Gordv, 314-326. 
Dewey: Southworth II, 256-259; Chandler and Chitwood, 297-307. 



CHAPTER CVIII 

What facts in the history of this war show the importance of the 
navy? Why did Hobson sink the Merrimac in the mouth of Santiago 
harbor? Make a list of dangers encountered by soldiers. In what re- 
spects was the American navy superior to the Spanish? What are the 
terms of the treaty ending the war? Do you think the United States 
ought to hold the Philippines? Porto Rico? 



I 



QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES 509 

Date Worth Remembkring. — 1898, war between the United States 
and Spain. 

Reference. — Clara Barton: Southworth II, 252-255. 



! CHAPTER CIX 

Definitions. — Find the meaning of guerrilla, sanitation, legation, im- 
perialism, intervene. 

Questions. — Why does the United States hold the Philippines? Should 
they be given their freedom? Should they be admitted as a State, or as 
States, to the Union? What obligations does the United States owe to 
Cuba? What kind of government has Porto Rico? Why did the people 
of this country pay the stamp tax in 1899 and refuse to do so in 1774? 
What were the causes and results of the Boxer trouble? What were the 
issues in the election of 1900? Why should an anarchist wish to kill the 
President? How did the United States acquire the Canal Zone? What 
is usually the cause of great labor strikes? 

Review Exercises. — Make a list of the difficulties of the United 
States which have been settled by arbitration. Of the principal events 
since 1865. Of the Vice Presidents who have succeeded to the office of 
President. 

Memory Gem. — "The Sword of Robert Lee": Williamson I, 7 



CHAPTER CX 

Questions. — Why is a pure food law wise? Why does it mark a 
dangerous tendency? What good results came from the voyage of the 
United States fleet around the world? What caused the panic of 1907? 
Why was the conference of Governors wise? Can you think of some im- 
portant subjects that might be considered by such a conference? What 
were the principal issues in the campaign of 1908? What evidences of 
the breaking of party lines do you find in the account of the Aldrich Bill? 

Review Exercises. — Make a list of great expositions, showing what 
each commemorated. Of the financial panics in the history of the country 
and the cause of each. Of the important events in the administration of 
Roosevelt. 

CHAPTER CXI 

Questions. — Why are strikes of comparatively recent date in American 
history? Do they indicate progress in any line? Do you find any evi- 
dence that the country is becoming more closely united? What changes 
have recently taken place in the condition of the negroes and in the re- 
lationship between the white people and other races in this country? 
Give reasons for these changes. What is the greatest power in this country 
for preparing foreigners for useful citizenship? In what part of the country 
do you find the smallest percentage of foreigners? Why? What are some 
of the most important recent American inventions? What are our most 



510 OUR REPUBLIC 

important educational factors? What is the special object of ea(!h? 
What makes the West attractive and prosperous? What makes the South 
so? Is there any reason why a boy should not become a prosperous and 
liappy man? Why a girl should not be a useful and contented woman? 
What is necessary for the success of every boy and girl? 

References. — Edison: Southworth II, 260-265; Chandler and Chit- 
wood, 288-294. Bell: Chandler and Chitwood, 294-296. Carnegie: 
Southworth II, 266-269. Southern Literature: Massey and Wood, 146- 
150. 



APPENDICES 



Appendix I 



THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE 



In Congress, July 4, 1776. 

THE UNANIMOUS DECLARATION OF THE THIRTEEN UNITED 
STATES OF AMERICA. 

When in the Course of human events, it becomes necessary for one people 
to dissolve the political bands which have connected them with another, 
and to assume among the Powers of the earth, the separate and equal sta- 
tion to which the Laws of Nature and of Nature's God entitle them, a 
decent respect to the opinions of mankind requires that they should declare 
the causes which impel them to the separation. 

We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, 
that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, 
that among these are Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness. That to 
secure these rights. Governments are instituted among Men, deriving their 
just powers from the consent of the governed, That whenever any Form of 
Government becomes destructive of these ends, it is the Right of the 
People to alter or to abolish it, and to institute new Government, laying its 
foundation on such principles and organizing its powers in such form, as to 
them shall seem most likely to effect their Safety and Happiness. Prudence, 
indeed, will dictate that Governments long established should not be 
changed for light and transient causes; and accordingly all experience hath 
shown, that mankind are more disposed to suffer, while evils are sufferable, 
than to right themselves by abolishing the forms to which they are accus- 
tomed. But when a long train of abuses and usurpations, pursuing invari- 
ably the same Object evinces a design to reduce them under absolute 
Despotism, it is their right, it is their duty, to throw off such Government, 
and to provide new Guards for their future security. — Such has been the 
patient .sufferance of the.se Colonies; and such is now the necessity which 
constrains them to alter their former Systems of Government. The history 
of the present King of Great Britain is a history of repeated injuries and 
usurpations, all having in direct object the establishment of an absolute 
Tyranny over these States. To prove this, let Facts be submitted to a 
candid world. 

He has refused his Assent to Laws, the most wholesome and necessary for 
the public good. 

513 



514 OUR REPUBLIC 

Ho Ims f()rl)i(kl(>ii his (iovernors to pass Laws of iinnuxliate and prcssiufj; 
importaiu'o, unless suspender 1 in thoir operation til! his Assent should l)e 
obtained; and when so suspended, he has utterly neglected to attend to 
them. 

He has refused to pass other Laws for the aeconimodation of large dis- 
tricts of people, unless those peojile wovild relincjuish the right of Represen- 
tation in the Legislature, a right inestimable to th(>m and formidable to 
tyrants only. 

He has called together legislative bodies at places unusual, uncomfort- 
able, and distant from the (lepository of their Public Records, for the sole 
purpose of fatiguing them into compliance with his measures. 

He has dissolved Representative Houses repeatedly, for opposing with 
manly firmness his invasions on the rights of the people. 

He has refused for a long time, after such dissolutions, to cause others to 
be elected; whereby the Legislative Powers, incapable of Annihilation, have 
returned to the People at large for their exercise; the State remaining in the 
mean time exposed to all the dangers of invasion from without, and convul- 
sions within. 

He has endeavoured to prevent the population of these States; for that 
purpose obstructing the Laws for Naturalization of Foreigners; refusing to 
pass others to encourage their migration hither, and raising the conditions of 
new Appropriations of Lands. 

He has obstructed the Administration of Justice, by refusing his Assent 
to La,ws for establishing Judiciary Powers. 

He has made Judges dependent on his Will alone, for the tenure of their 
offices, and the amount and payment of their salaries. 

He has erected a multitude of New Offices, and sent hither swarms of 
Officers to harrass our People, and eat out their substance. 

He has kept among us, in times of peace. Standing Armies without the 
Consent of our legislature. 

He has afTectetl to render \hv Military independent of and superior to the 
Civil Power. 

He has combined with others to subject us to a jurisdiction foreign to our 
constitution, and unacknowledged by our laws; giving his Assent to their 
Acts of pretended Legislation : 

For quartering large bodies of armed troops among us: 

For protecting them, by a mock Trial, from Punishment for any Murders 
which they should commit on the Inhabitants of these States: 

For cutting off our Trade with all parts of the world : 

For imposing taxes on us without our Consent : 

For depriving us in many cases, of the benefits of Trial by Jury : 

For transporting us beyond Seas to be tried for pretended offences: 

For abolishing the free System of English Laws in a neighbouring Prov- 
ince, establishing therein an Arbitrary government, and enlarging its 
Boundaries so as to render it at once an example and fit instrument for 
introducing the same absolute rule into these Colonies: 

For taking away our Charters, abolishing our most valuable Laws, and 
altering fundamentally the Forms of our Governments: 

For suspending our own Legislatures, and declaring themselves invested 
with Power to legislate for us in all cases whatsoever. 

He has abdicated Government here, by declaring us out of his Protection 
and waging War against us. 



DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE 



515 



He has plundered our seas, ravaged our Coasts, burnt our towns, anil 
destroyed the lives of our people. 

He is at this time transporting large armies of foreign mercenaries to 
f'ompleat the works of death, desolation and tyranny, alrc^ady begun with 
circumstanees of Cruelty & i^erfidy scarcely paralleled in the most barliar- 
ous ages, and totally unworthy the Head of a civilized nation. 

He has constrained our fellow Citizens taken Captive on the high Seas to 
bear Arms against their Country, to become the executioners of their friends 
and Brethren, or to fall themselves by their Hands. 

He has excited domestic insurrections amongst us, and has endeavoured 
to bring on the inhabitants of our frontiers, the merciless Indian Savages, 
whose known rule of warfare, is an undistinguished destruction of all ages, 
sexes and conditions. 

In every stage of these Oppressions We have Petitioned for Redress in 
the most humble terms: Our repeated Petitions have been answered only 
by repeated injury. A Prince, whose character is thus marked by every act 
which may define a Tyrant, is unfit to be the ruler of a free People. 

Nor have We been wanting in attention to our Brittish brethren. We 
have warned them from time to time of attempts by their legislature to 
extend an imwarrantable jurisdiction over us. We have reminded them of 
the circumstances of our emigration and settlement here. We have appealed 
to their native justice and magnanimity, and we have conjured them by the 
ties of our common kindred to disavow these usurpations, which, would 
inevitably interrupt our connections and correspondence. They too have 
l)een deaf to the voice of justice and of consanguinity. We nnist, therefore, 
acciuiesce in the necessity, which denounces our Separation, and hold them, 
ns we hold the rest of mankind. Enemies in War, in Peace Friends. 

We, therefore, the Representatives of the united States of America, in 
(leneral Congress, Assembled, appealing to the Supreme Judge of the world 
for the rectitude of our into>ntions, do, in the Name, and by Authority of the 
good Peojile of these Colonies, solemnly publish and declare. That thes(> 
United Colonies are, and of Right ought to be Free and Independent States; 
that they are Absolved from all Allegiance to the British Crown, and that all 
politicaf connection between them and the State of Great Britain, is and 
ought to be totally dissolved; and that as Free and Independent States, 
they have full Power to levy War, conclude Peace, contract Alliances, 
establish Commerce, and to do all other Acts and Things which Independ- 
ent States may of right do. And for the support of this Declaration, with a 
firm reliance on the Protection of Divine Providence, we mutually pledge to 
each other our Lives, our Fortunes and our sacred Honor. 

JOHN HANCOCK. 



NEW HAMPSHIRE. 

JOSIAH BaRTLETT, 

Wm. Whipple, 
Matthew Thornton. 

MASSACHUSETTS BAY. 

Saml. Adam8, 
John Adams, 
RoBT. Treat Paine, 

El,BKIDf:E CKRnY. 



RHODE ISLAND. 

Step. Hopkns, 
William Ellery. 

CONNECTICrT. 

Roger Sherman, 
Sam'el Huntinc.ton, 
Wm. Williams, 
Oliver Wolcott. 



NEW YORK. 

Wm. Floyd, 
Phil. Livingston, 
Frans. Lewis, 
Lewis Morris. 



516 



OUR REPUBLIC 



NEW JERSEY. 
RicHD. Stockton, 

J NO. WiTHEHSPOON, 
Fr.\S. HOPKINSON, 

John Hart, 
Abra. Clark. 



PENNSYLVANIA. 

RoBT. Morris, 
Benjamin Rush, 
Benja. Franklin, 
John Morton, 
Geo. Clymer, 
Jas. Smith, 
Geo. Taylor, 
James Wilson, 
Geo. Ross. 



DELAWARE. 

C^sar Rodney, 
Geo. Read, 
Tho. M'Kean. 

MARYLAND. 

Samuel Chase, 
Wm. Paca, 
Thos. Stone, 

Charles Carroll of Car- 
roUton 

VIRGINL\. 

George Wythe, 
Richard Henry Lee, 
Th. Jefferson, 
Benja. H.-vrrison, 
Thos. Nelson, jr., 
Francis Lightfoot Lee, 
Carter Braxton. 



NORTH CAROLINA. 

Wm. Hooper, 
Joseph Hewes, 
John Penn. 

SOUTH CAROLINA. 

Edward Rutledge, 
Thos. Heyward, Junr., 
Thomas Lynch, Junr., 
Arthur Middleton. 



GEORGIA. 

Button Gwinnett, 
Lyman Hall, 
Geo. Walton. 



I 



Appendix II 



THE CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED 
STATES OF AMEKICA 

We the People of the United States, in Order to form a more perfect 
Union, establish Justice, insure domestic Tranquility, provide for the 
common defence, promote the general Welfare, and secure the Bless- 
ings of Liberty to ourselves and our Posterity, do ordain and establish 
this Constitution for the United States of America. 

ARTICLE. I. 

Section. I. All legislative Powers herein granted shall he vested in a 
Congress of the United States, which shall consist of a Senate and House of 
Representatives. 

Section. 2. The House of Representatives shall be composed of Mem- 
bers chosen every second Year by the People of the several States, and the 
Electors in each State shall have the Qualifications requisite for Electors of 
the most numerous Branch of the State Legislature. 

No Person shall be a Representative who shall not have attained to the 
Age of twenty five Years, and been seven Years a Citizen of the United 
States, and who shall not, when elected, be an Inhabitant of that State in 
which he shall be chosen. 

Representatives and direct Taxes shall be apportioned among the several 
States which may be included within this LTnion, according to their respec- 
tive Numbers, which shall be determined by adding to the whole Number 
of free Persons, including those bound to Service for a Term of Years, 
and excluding Indians not taxed, three fifths of all other Persons. The 
actual Enumeration shall be made within three Years after the first Meeting 
of the Congress of the United States, and within every subsequent Term 
of ten Years, in such Manner as they shall by Law direct. The Number of 
Representatives shall not exceed one for everj' thirty Thousand, but each 
State shall have at Least one Representative; [and until such enumeration 
shall be made, the State of New Hampshire shall be entitled to chuse three, 
Massachusetts eight, Rhode-Island and Providence Plantations one, 
Connecticut five. New- York six, New Jersey four, Pennsylvania eight, 
Delaware one, Maryland six, Virginia ten. North Carolina five. South 
Carolina five, and Georgia three.] 

517 



518 OUR REPUBLIC 

When vacancies happen in the Representation from any State, the 
Executive Authority thereof shall issue Writs of Election to fill such Vacan- 
cies. 

The House of Representatives shall chuse their Speaker and other 
Officers; and shall have the sole Power of Impeachment. 

Section. 3. The Senate of the United States shall be composed of two 
Senators from each State, chosen by the Legislature thei'eof, for six Years; 
and each Senator shall have one Vote. 

Immediately after they shall be assembled in Consequence of the first 
Election, they shall be divided as equally as may be into three Classes. 
The Seats of the Senators of the first Class shall be vacated at the Expira- 
tion of the second Year, of the second Class at the Expiration of the fourth 
Year, and of the third Class at the Expiration of the sixth Year, so that one 
third may be chosen every second Year; and if Vacancies happen by 
Resignation, or otherwise, during the Recess of the Legislature of any 
State, the Executive thereof may make temporary Appointments until the 
next Meeting of the Legislature, which shall then fill such Vacancies. 

No Person shall be a Senator who shall not have attained to the Age 
of thirty Years, and been nine Years a Citizen of the United States, and who 
shall not, when elected, be an Inhabitant of that State for which he shall 
be chosen. 

The Vice President of the United States shall be President of the Senate, 
but shall have no Vote, unless they be equally divided. 

The Senate shall chose their other Officers, and also a President pro 
tempore, in the Absence of the Vice President, or when he shall exercise 
the Office of President of the United States. 

The Senate shall have the sole Power to try all Impeachments. When 
sitting for that Purpose, they shall be on Oath or Affirmation. When the 
President of the United States is tried, the Chief Justice shall preside: And 
no Person shall be convicted without the Concurrence of two thirds of the 
Members present. 

Judgment in Cases of Impeachment shall not extend further than to 
removal from Office, and disqualification to hold and enjoj' any Office of 
honor. Trust or Profit under the United States: but the Party convicted 
shall nevertheless be liable and subject to Indictmefit, Trial, Judgment and 
Punishment, according to Law. 

Section. 4. The Times, Places and Manner of holding Elections for 
Senators and Representatives, shall be prescribed in each State by the 
Legislature thereof; but the Congress may at any time by Law make or 
alter such Regulations, except as to the Places of chusing Senators. 

The Congress shall assemble at least once in every Year, and such 
Meeting shall be on the first Monday in December, unless they shall by 
Law appoint a different Day. 

Section. 5. Each House shall be the Judge of the Elections, Returns 
and Qualifications of its own Members, and a Majority of each shall con- 
stitute a Quorum to do Business; but a smaller Number may adjourn from 
day to day, and may be authorized to compel the Attendance of absent 
Members, in such Manner, and under such Penalties as each House may 
provide. 

Each House may determine the Rules of its Proceedings, punish its 
Members for disorderly Behaviour, and, with the Concurrence of two 
thirds, expel a Member. 



CONSTITUTION OK THE UNITED STATES 519 

_ Each House shall keep a Journal of its Proceeding^;, and from time to 
(ime publish the same, excepting such Parts as may in their Judgment, 
require Secrecy; and the Yeas and Nays of the Members of either House on 
any question shall, at the Desire of one fifth of those Present, be entered 
on the Journal. 

Neither House, during the Session of Congress, shall, without the Con- 
sent of the other, adjourn for more than three days, nor to any other 
Place than that in which the two Houses shall be sitting. 

Section. 6. The Senators and Representatives shall receive a Com- 
pensation for their Services, to be ascertained by Law, and paid out of the 
Treasury of the United States. They shall in all Cases, except Treason, 
Felony and Breach of the Peace, be privileged from Arrest during their 
Attendance at the Session of their respective Houses, and in going to and 
returning from the same; and for any Speech or Debate in either House, 
they shall not be questioned in any other Place. 

No Senator or Representative shall, during the Time for which he was 
elected, be appointed to any civil Office under the Authority of the United 
States, which shall have been created, or the Emoluments whereof shall 
have been encreased during such time; and no Person holding any Office 
under the United States, shall be a Member of either House during his 
Continuance in Office. 

Section. 7. All Bills for raising Revenue shall originate in the House 
of Representatives; but the Senate may propose or concur with Amend- 
ments as on other Bills. 

Every Bill which shall have passed the House of Representatives and 
the Senate, shall, before it become a Law, be presented to the President of 
the 'United States; if he approve he shall sign it, but if not he shall return 
it, with his Objections to that House in which it shall have originated, who 
shall enter the Objections at large on their Journal, and proceed to recon- 
sider it. If after such Reconsideration two thirds of that House shall agree 
to pass the Bill, it shall be sent, together with the Objections, to the other 
House, by which it shall likewise be reconsidered, and if approved by two 
thirds of that House, it shall become a Law. But in all such Cases the Votes 
of both Houses shall be determined by Yeas and Nays, and the Names of the 
Persons voting for and against the Bill shall be entered on the Journal of 
each House respectively. If any Bill shall not be returned by the President 
within ten Days (Sundays excepted) after it shall have been presented to 
him, the Same shall be a Law, in hke Manner as if he had signed it, unless 
the Congress by their Adjournment prevent its Return, in which Case it 
shall not be a Law. 

Every Order, Resolution, or Vote to which the Concurrence of the 
Senate and House of Representatives may be necessary (except on a ques- 
tion of Adjournment) shall be presented to the President of the United 
States; and before the same shall take Effect, shall be approved by him, or 
being disapproved by him, shall be repassed by two thirds of the Senate and 
House of Representatives, according to the Rules and Limitations pre- 
scribed in the Case of a Bill. 

Section. 8. The Congress shall have Power To lay and collect Taxes, 
Duties, Imposts and Excises, to pay the Debts and provide for the common 
Defence and general Welfare of the United States; but all Duties, Imposts 
and Excises shall be uniform throughout the United States; 

To borrow Money on the credit of the United States; 



520 OUR REPUBLIC 

To regulate Commerce with foreign Nations, and among the several 
States, and with the Indian Tribes; 

To estabhsh an uniform Rule of Naturalization, and uniform Laws on 
the subject of Bankruptcies throughout the United States; 

To coin Money, regulate the Value thereof, and of foreign Coin, and 
fix the Standard of Weights and Measures; 

To provide for the Punishment of counterfeiting the Securities and cur- 
rent Coin of the United States; 

To establish Post Offices and post Roads; 

To promote the Progress of Science and useful Arts, by securing for 
limited Times to Authors and Inventors the exclusive Right to their respec- 
tive Writings and Discoveries; 

To constitute Tribunals inferior to the Supreme Court; 

To define and punish Piracies and Felonies committed on the high Seas, 
and Offences against the Law of Nations; 

To declare War, grant Letters of Marque and Reprisal, and make Rules 
concerning Captures on Land and Water; 

To raise and support Armies, Init no Ajipropriation of Money to ihat 
Use shall be for a longer Term than two Years; 

To provide and maintain a Navy; 

To make Rules for the Government and Regulation of the land and 
naval Forces; 

To provide for calling forth the Militia to execute the Laws of the 
Union, suppress Insurrections and repel Invasions; 

To provide for organizing, arming, and disciplining, the Militia, and for 
governing such Part of them as may be employed in the Service of the 
United States, reserving to the States respectively, the Appointment of the 
(Officers, and the Authority of training the Militia according to the disci- 
pline prescribed by Congress; 

To exercise exclusive Legislation in all Cases whatsoever, over such 
District (not exceeding ten Miles square) as may, by Cession of particular 
States, and the Acceptance of Congress, become the Seat of the Govern- 
ment of the United States, and to exercise like Authority over all Places 
purchased by the Consent of the Legislature of the State in which the Same 
shall be, for the Erection of Forts, Magazines, Arsenals, dock-Yards, and 
other needful Buildings; — And 

To make all Laws which shall be necessary and proper for carrying into 
Execution the foregoing Puwers, and all other Powers vested by this 
Constitution in the Government of the United States, or in any Department 
or Officer thereof. 

Section. 9. The Migration or Importation of such Persons as any 
of the States now existing shall think proper to admit, shall not be pro- 
hibited by the Congress prior to the Year one thousand eight hundred and 
eight, but a Tax or duty may be imposed on such Importation, not exceed- 
ing ten dollars for each Person. 

The Privilege of the Writ of Habeas Corpus shall not be suspended, 
unless when in Cases of Rebellion or Invasion the public safety may 
require it. 

No Bill of Attainder or ex post facto Law shall be passed. 

No Capitation, or other direct. Tax shall be laid, unless in Proportion 
to the Census or Enumeration herein before directed to be taken. 

No Tax or Duty shall be laid on Articles exported from any State. 



CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES 521 

No Preference shall be given by any Regulation of Commerce or Revenue 
to the Ports of one State over those of another: nor shall Vessels bound to, 
or from, one State, be obliged to enter, clear, or psiy Duties in another. 

No Money shall be drawn from the Treasury, but in Conseciuence of 
Appropriations made by Law; and a regular Statement and Account of the 
Receipts and Expenditures of all public Money S'hall be published from time 
to time. 

No Title of Nobility shall be granted by the United States: And no 
Person holding any Office of Profit or Trust under them, shall, without the 
Consent of the Congress, accept of any present. Emolument, Office, or 
Title, of any kind whatever, from any King, Prince, or foreign State. 

Section. 10. No State shall enter into any Treaty, Alliance, or Con- 
federation; grant Letters of Marque and Reprisal; coin Money; emit 
Bills of Credit; make any Thing but gold and silver Coin a Tender in Pay- 
ent of Debts; pass any Bill of Attainder, ex post facto Law, or Law 
impairing the Obligation of Contracts, or grant any Title of Nobility. 

No State shall, without the Consent of the Congress, lay any Imposts 
or Duties on Imports or Exports, except what may be absolutely necessary 
for executing it's inspection Laws: and the net Produce of all Duties and 
Imposts, laid by any State on Imports or Exports, shall be for the Use of the 
Treasury of the United States; and all such Laws shall be subject to the 
Revision and Control of the Congress. 

No State shall, without the Consent of Congress, lay any Duty of 
Totmage, keep Troops, or Ships of War in time of Peace, enter into any 
Agreement or Compact with another State, or with a foreign Power, or 
eiigage in War, unless actually invaded, or in such iniminent I)ang<'r as will 
not admit of delay. 

ARTICLE. II. 

Section. 1. The executive Power shall be vested in a President of the 
United States of America. He shall hold his Office during the Term of four 
Years, and, together with the Vice President, chosen for the same Term, be 
elected, as follows 

Each State shall appoint, in such Manner as the Legislature thereof 
may direct, a Number of Electors, equal to the whole Number of Senators 
and Representatives to which the State may be entitled in the Congress: 
but no Senator or Representative, or Person holding an Office of Trust or 
Profit under the United States, shall be appointed an Elector. 

The Electors shall meet in their respective States, and vote by Ballot 
for two Persons, of whom one at least shall not be an Inhabitant of the 
same State with themselves. And they shall make a List of all the Persons 
voted for, and of the Number of Votes for each; which List they shall sign 
and certify, and transmit sealed to the Seat of the Government of the 
United States, directed to the President of the Senate. The President of the 
Senate shall, in the Presence of the Senate and House of Representatives, 
open all the Certificates, and the Votes shall then be counted. The Person 
having the greatest Number of Votes shall be the President, if such Number 
be a Majority of the whole Number of Electors appointed; and if there be 
more than one who have such Majority, and have an equal Number of 
Votes, then the House of Represenatives shall immediately chuse by Ballot 
one of them for President; and if no Person have a Majority, then from the 



522 OUR REPUBLIC 

five highest on the List the said House shall in like Manner chuse the Presi- 
dent. But in chusing the President, the Votes shall be taken by States, the 
Representation from each State having one Vote; A quorum for this Pur- 
pose shall consist of a Member or Members from two thirds of the States, 
and a Majority of all the States shall be necessary to a Choice. In every 
Case, after the Choice of the President, the Person having the greatest 
Number of Votes of the Electors shall be the Vice President. But if there 
should remain two or more who have equal Votes, the Senate shall chuse 
from them by Ballot the Vice President. 

The Congress may determine the Time of chusing the Electors, and the 
Day on which they shall give their Votes; which Day shall be the same 
throughout the United States. 

No Person except a natural born Citizen, or a Citizen of the United 
States, at the time of the Adoption of this Constitution, shall be eligible to 
the Office of President; neither shall any Person be eligible to that Office 
who shall not have attained to the Age of thirty five Years, and been four- 
teen Years a Resident within the United States. 

In Case of the Removal of the President from Office, or of his Death, 
Resignation, or Inability to discharge the Powers and Duties of the saicl 
Office.the Same shall devolve on the Vice President, and the Congress may 
by Law provide for the Case of Removal, Death, Resignation or Inability, 
both of the President and Vice President, declaring what Officer shall then 
act as President, and such Officer shall act accordingly, mitil the Disability 
be removed, or a President shall be elected. 

The President shall, at stated Times, receive for his Services, a Com- 
pensation, which shall neither be encreased nor diminished during the 
Period for which he shall have been elected, and he shall not receive within 
that Period any other Emolument from the United States, or any of them. 

Before he enter on the Execution of his Office, he shall take the following 
Oath or Affirmation: — "I do solemnly swear (or affirm) that I will faith- 
fully execute the Office of President of the L^nited States, and will to the 
best of my Ability, preserve, protect and defend the Constitution of the 
United States." 

Section. 2. The President shall be Commander in Chief of the Army 
and Navy of the United States, and of the Mifitia of the several States, 
when called into the actual Service of the United States; he may require 
the Opinion, in writing, of the principal Officer in each of the executive De- 
partments, upon any Subject relating to the Duties of their respective 
Offices, and he shall have Power to grant Reprieves and Pardons for 
Offences against the United States, except in Cases of Impeachment. 

He shall have Power, by and with the Advice and Consent of the Senate, 
to make Treaties, provided two thirds of the Senators present concur; 
and he shall nominate, and by and with the Advice and Consent of the 
Senate, shall appoint Ambassadors, other public Ministers and Consuls, 
Judges of the supreme Court, and all other Officers of the LTnited States, 
whose Appointments are not herein otherwise provided for, and which 
shall be established by Law: but the Congress may by Law vest the 
Appointment of such inferior Officers, as they think proper, in the President 
alone, in the Courts of Law, or in the Heads of Departments. 

The President shall have Power to fill up all Vacancies that may happen 
during the Recess of the Senate, by granting Commissions which shall 
expire at the End of their next Session. 



CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES 523 

Section. 3. He shall from time to time Rive to the Congress Informa- 
tion of the State of the Union, and recommend to their Consideration such 
Measures as he shall judge necessary and expedient; he may, on extraor- 
dinary Occasions, convene both Houses, or either of them, and in Case of 
Disagreement between them with Respect to the Time of Adjournment, he 
may adjourn them to such Time as he shall think proper; he shall receive 
Ambassadors and other public Ministers; he shall take Care that the Laws 
be faithfully executed, and shall Commission all the Officers of the United 
States. 

Section. 4. The President, Vice President and all civil Officers of the 
United States, shall be removed from Office on Impeachment for, and Con- 
viction of. Treason, Bribery, or other high Crimes and Misdemeanors. 



ARTICLE. III. 

Section. 1. The judicial Power of the United States, shall be vested 
in one supreme Court, and in such inferior Courts as the Congress may from 
time to time ordain and establish. The Judges, both of the supreme and 
inferior (courts, shall hold their Offices during good Behavioui, and shall, at 
stated Times, receive for their Services, a Compensation, which shall not be 
diminished during their continuance in Office. 

Section. 2. The judicial Power shall extend to all cases, in Law and 
Equity, arising under this Constitution, the Laws of the LTnited States, and 
Treaties made, or which shall be made, under their Authority; — to all 
Ceases affecting Ambassadors, other public Ministers and C'onsuls; — to all 
Cases of admiralt.y and maritime Jurisdiction; — to Controversies to which 
the United States shall be a Party; — to Controversies between two or more 
States; — between a State and Citizens of another State; between Citizens 
of different States, — between Citizens of the same State claiming Lands 
under Grants of different States, and between a State, or the Citizens 
thereof, and foreign States, Citizens or Subjects. 

In all Cases affecting Ambassadors, other public Ministers and Con- 
suls, and those in which a State shall be Party, the supreme Court shall have 
original Jurisdiction. In all the other Cases before mentioned, the supreme 
Court shall have appellate Jurisdiction, both as to Law and Fact, with such 
Exceptions, and under su(^h regulations as the Congress shall make. 

The Trial of all Crimes, except in Cases of Impeachment, shall be by 
Jury; and such Trial shall be held in the State where the said Crimes shall 
have been committed; but when not committed within any State, the Trial 
shall be at such Place or Places as the Congress may by Law have directed. 

Section. '6. Treason against the United States, shall consist only in 
levying War against them, or in adhering to their Enemies, giving them Aid 
and Comfort. No Person shall be convicted of Treason unless on the Testi- 
mony of two Witnesses to the same overt Act, or on Confession in open 
Court. 

The Congress shall have Power to declare the Punishment of Treason, 
but no Attainder of Treason shall work Corruption of Blood, or Forfeiture 
except during the Life of the Person attainted. 



524 OUR REPUBLIC 



ARTICLE. IV. 

Section. 1. Full Faith and Credit shall be given in each State to the 
public Acts, Records, and judicial Proceedings of every other State. And 
the ('ongress may by general Laws prescribe the Manner in which such 
Acts, Records and Proceedings shall be proved, and the Effect thereof. 

Section. 2. The Citizens of each State shall be entitled to all Privileges 
and Immunities of Citizens in the several States. 

A Person charged in any State with Treason, Felony, or other Crime, who 
shall flee from Justice, and be found in another State, shall on Demand of 
the executive Authority of the State from which he fled, be delivered up, to 
l)e removed to the State having Jurisdiction of the Crime. 

No Person held to Service or Labour in one State, under the Laws 
thereof, escaping into another, shall, in Conseciuence of any Law or Regula- 
tion therein, be discharged from such Service or Labour, but shall be deliv- 
ered up on Claim of the Party to whom such Service or Labour may be due. 

Section. 3. New States may be admitted by the Congress into this 
LTnion; but no new State shall be formed or erected within the Jurisdiction 
of any other State; nor any State be formed by the Junction of two or more 
States, or Parts of States, without the Consent of the Legislatures of the 
States concerned as well as of the Congress. 

The Congress shall have Power to dispose of and make all needful Rules 
and Regulations respecting the Territory or other Property belonging to 
the United States; and nothing in this Constitution shall be so construed as 
to Prejudice any Claims of the United States, or of any particular State. 

Section. 4. The United States shall guarantee to every State in this 
Union a Republican Form of Government, and shall protect each of them 
against Invasion; and on Application of the Legislature, or of the Executive 
(when the Legislature cannot be convened) against domestic Violence. 

ARTICLE. V. 

The Congress, whenever two thirds of both Houses shall deem it neces- 
sary, shall propose Amendments to tliis Constitution, or, on the Applica- 
tion of the IjCgislature of two thirds of the several States, shall call a 
Convention for proposing Amendments, which, in either Case, shall be 
valid to all Intents and Purposes, as Part of this Constitution, when ratified 
by the Legislatures of three fourths of the several States, or by Conventions 
in three fourths thereof, as the one or the other Mode of Ratification may 
be proposed by the Congress; Provided that no Amendment which may be 
made prior to the Year One thousand eight hundred and eight shall in any 
Manner affect the first and fourth Clauses in the Ninth Section of the first 
Article; and that no State, without its Consent, shaU be deprived of it's 
equal Suffrage in the Senate. 

ARTICLE. VI. 

All Debts contracted and Engagements entered into, before the Adop- 
tion of this Constitution, shall be as valid against the United States under 
this Constitution, as under the Confederation. 



ClONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES 525 

This Constitution, and the Laws of the United States which shall be 
made in Pursuance thereof; and all Treaties made, or which shall be made, 
under the Authority of the United States, shall be the supreme Law of the 
Land; and the Jiulges in every State shall be bound thereby, any Thing 
in the Constitution or Laws of any State to the Contrary notwithstanding. 

The Senators antl Representatives before mentioned, and the Members 
of the several State Legislatures, and all executive and judicial Officers, 
both of the LTnited States and of the several States, shall be bound by Oath 
or Affirmation, to support this Constitution; but no religious Test shall 
ever be required as a Qualification to any Office or public Trust under the 
United States. 

ARTICLE. Vn. 

The Ratification of the Conventions of nine States, shall be sufficient for 
the Establishment of tliis Constitution between the States so ratifying 
the Same. 

Done in Convention by the Unanimous Consent of the States pres- 
ent the Seventeenth Day of September in the Year of our 
Lord one thousand seven hundred and Eighty seven and of the 
Independance of the United States of America the Twelfth 

In Witness whereof We have hereunto subscribed our Names, 

Qo; WASHINGTON— PrmVZi. 

and deputy from Virginia 
Attest William Jackson Secretary 



NEW HAMPSHIRE. 

John Langdon 
Nicholas Oilman 



MASSACHUSETTS. 

Nathaniel Gorham 
Rdfus King 



CONNECTICUT. 

Wm: Saml. Johnson 
Roger Sherman 

NEW YORK 
Alexander Hamilton 

NEW JERSEY 

Wil: Livingston 
David Brearley. 
Wm. Paterson. 
Jona: Dayton 



PENNSYLVANIA 

B Franklin 
Thomas Mifflin 
RoBT. Morris 
Geo. Clymer 
Thos. Fitz Simons 
Jared Ingersoll 
James Wilson 
Gouv Morris 



DELAWARE. 

Geo: Read 

Gunning Bedford jun 
John Dickinson 
Richard Bassett 
Jaco: Broom 



MARYLAND. 

James McHenry 

Dan of St Thos. Jenifer 

Danl Carroll 



VIRGINIA. 

John Blair — - 
James Madison Jr. 



NORTH CAROLINA. 

Wm: Blount 

RiCHD. DoBBS SpAIGHT. 

Hu Williamson 



SOUTH CAROLINA. 

j. rutledge 
Charles Cotesworth 

Pinckney 
Charles Pinckney 
Pierce Butler. 



GEORGIA. 

William Few 
Abr Baldwin 



526 OUR REPUBLIC 



ARTICLES 

ill Addition to, and Amendment of the Constitution of the United States of 
America, proposed by Congress and ratified by the Legislatures of the 
Several States, pursuant to the Fifth Article of the Constitution. 

ARTICLE I. 

Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or 
prohibiting the free exercise thereof; or Abridging the freedom of speech, or 
of the press; or the right of the people peaceably to assemble, and to peti- 
tion the Government for a redress of grievances. 

ARTICLE II. 

A well regulated Mihtia, being necessary to the security of a free State, 
the right of the people to keep and bear Arms, shall not be infringed. 

ARTICLE III. 

No Soldier shall, in time of peace be quartered in any house, without ihe 
consent of the Owner, nor in time of war, but in a manner to be prescribed 
by law. 

ARTICLE IV. 

The right of the people to be secure in their persons, houses, papers, and 
effects, against unreasonable searches and seizures, shall not be violated, 
and no Warrants shall issue, but upon probable cause, supported by Oath or 
affirmation, and particularly describing the place to be searched, and the 
persons or things to be seized. 

ARTICLE V. 

No person shall be held to answer for a capital, or otherwise infamous 
crime, unless on a presentment or indictment of a Grand Jury, except in 
cases arising in the land or naval forces, or in the Militia, when in actual 
service in time of War or public danger; nor shall any person be subject for 
the same offence to be twice put in jeopardy of life or limb; nor shall be 
compelled in any Criminal Case to be a witness against hims(>lf, nor be de- 
prived of life, liberty, or property, without due j^rocess of law; nor shall 
private property be taken for public use, without just compensation. 

ARTICLE VI. 

In all criminal prosecutions, the accused shall enjoy the right to a speedy 
and public trial, by an impartial jury of the State and district wherein the 
crime shall have been committed, which district shall have been previously 
ascertained by law, and to be informed of the nature and cause of the accu- 



CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES 527 

sation; to be confronted with the witnesses against him; to have compul- 
sory process for obtaining Witnesses in his favor, and to have the Assistance 
of Counsel for his defence. 

ARTICLE VII. 

In suits at common law, where the value in controversy shall exceed 
twenty dollars, the right of trial by jury shall be preserved, and no fact 
tried by a jury shall be otherwise re-examined in any Court of the United 
States, than according to the rules of the conmion law. 

ARTICLE Vni. 

Excessive bail shall not be required, nor excessive fines imposed, nor cruel 
and unusual punishments inflicted. 

ARTICLE IX. 

The enumeration in the Constitution, of certain rights, shall not lie con- 
strued to deny or disparage others retained by the people. 

ARTICLE X.i 

The powers not delegated to the United States by the Constitution, nor 
prohibited by it to the States, are reserved to the States respectively, or to 
the people. 

ARTICLE XI. 2 

The Judicial power of the United States shall not be construed to extend 
to any suit in law or equity, commenced or prosecuted against one of the 
United States by Citizens of another State, or by Citizens or Subjects of 
any Foreign State. 

ARTICLE XII.3 

The Electors shall meet in their respective states, and vote by ballot for 
President and Vice President, one of whom, at least, shall not be an inhabi- 
tant of the same state with themselves; they shall name in their ballots the 
person voted for as President, and in distinct ballots the person voted for as 
Vice President, and they shall make distinct lists of all persons voted for as 
President, and of all persons voted for as Vice President, and of the number 
of votes for each, which lists they shall sign and certify, and transmit sealed 
to the seat of the government of the United States, directed to the President, 
of the Senate; — The President of the Senate shall, in presence of the Senate 
and House of Representatives, open all the certificates and the votes shall 
then be counted; — The person having the greatest number of votes for 
President, shall be the President, if such number be a majority of the whole 

' Ampndmpnts I.-X. were proclaimed to be in foree Dofeniber 15, 1701. 
2 Proelainied to be in force January S, 1798. 
5 Proclaimed to be in force September 2.5, 1804. 



528 OUR REPUBLIC 

number of Electors appointed; and if no person have such majority, then 
from the persons having the highest numbers not exceeding three on the hst 
of those voted for as President, the House of Representatives shall choose 
immediately, by ballot, the President. But in choosing the President, the 
votes shall be taken by states, the representation from each state having one 
vote; a quorum for this purpose shall consist of a member or members from 
two- thirds of the states, and a majoi-ity of all the states shall be necessary to 
a choice. And if the House of Representatives shall not choose a President 
whenever the right of choice shall devolve upon them, before the fourth day 
of March next following, then the Vice President shall act as President, as 
in the case of the death or other constitutional disability of the President. 
The person having the greatest number of votes as Vice President, shall be 
the Vice President, if such number be a majority of the whole number of 
Electors appointed, and if no person have a majority, then from the two 
highest numbers on the list, the Senate shall choose the Vice President, 
a quorvnn for the purpose shall consist of two-thirds of the whole number of 
Senators, and a majority of the whole number shall be necessary to a choice. 
But no person constitutionally ineligible to the oiEce of President shall be 
eligible to that of Vice President of the United States. 

ARTICLE XIII. 1 

Section 1. Neither slavery nor involuntary servitude, except as a pun- 
ishment for crime whereof the party shall have been duly convicted, shall 
exist within the United States, or any place subject to their jurisdiction. 

Section 2. Congress shall have power to enforce this article by appro- 
priate legislation. 

ARTICLE XIV. = 

Section 1. All persons born or naturalized in the United States, and 
sul:)ject to the jurisdiction thereof, are citizens of the United States and of 
tlu' State wherein they reside. No State shall make or enforce any law 
which shall abridge the privileges or immunities of citizens of the United 
States; nor shall any State deprive any person of life, liberty, or property, 
without due process of law; nor deny to any person within its jurisdiction 
the equal protection of the laws. 

Section 2. Representatives shall be apportioned among the several 
States according to their respective numbers, counting the whole number of 
persons in each State, excluding Indians not taxed. But when the right to 
vote at any election for the choice of electors for President and Vice Presi- 
dent of the United States, Representatives in Congress, the Executive and 
Judicial officers of a State, or the members of the Legislature thereof, is 
denied to any of the male inhabitants of such State, IxMng twenty-one years 
of age, and citizens of the United States, or in any way a) iridged, except for 
participation in re]:)ellion, or other crime, the basis of representation therein 
shall be reduced in the proportion which the number of such male citizens 
shall bear to the whole number of male citizens twenty-one years of age in 
such State. 

• Proclaimed to be in force December 18, 1865. 
2 Proclaimed to be in force July 28, 1868. 



CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES 529 

Section 3. No person shall be a Senator or Representative in Congress, 
or elector of President and Vice President, or hold any office, civil or mili- 
tary, under the United States, or under any State, who, having previously 
taken an oath, as a member of Congress, or as an officer of the United 
States, or as a member of any State legislature, or as an executive or judicial 
officer of any State, to support the Constitution of the United States, shall 
have engaged in insurrection or rebellion against the same, or given aid or 
comfort to the enemies thereof. But Congress may by a vote of two-thirds 
of each House, remove such disability. 

Section 4. The validity of the pubhc debt of the United States, author- 
ized by law, including debts incurred for payment of pensions and bounties 
for services in suppressing insurrection or rebellion, shall not be questioned. 
But neither the United States nor any State shall assume or pay any debt or 
obligation incurred in aid of insurrection or rebellion against the United 
States, or any claim for the loss of emancipation of any slave; but all such 
ilebts, obligations and claims shall be held illegal and void. 

Section 5. The Congress shall have power to enforce, by appropriate 
legislation, the provisions of this article. 

ARTICLE XV. > 

Section 1 . The right of citizens of the United States to vote shall not be 
denied or abridged by the United States or by any State on account of race, 
color, or previous condition of servitude. 

Section 2. The Congress shall have power to enforce this article by 
appropriate legislation. 

1 Proclaimed to be in force March 30, 1870. 






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530 



GROWTH OF THE UNITED STATES 



States 



1. Delaware , 

2. Pennsylvania ^ h 

3. New Jersey g 2 

4. Georglv go 

5. Connecticut "*-" ^ 

6. Massachusetts H '^ "^ 

7. Maryland ^ h 

S. South Carolina ^ a h 

9. New Hampshire 7. &' 

10. ViRGIMA 3 g 

11. New Vork S h 

12.' North Caholix V O^ 

1.3. Rhode Island ^ 

14. Vermont 

15. Kentucky 

16. Tennessee 

17. Ohio 

18. Louisiana 

19. Indiana 

20. Missi.ssippi 

21. Illinois 

22. Alabama 

23. Maine 

24. Missouri 

25. Arkansas 

26. Michigan 

27. Florida 

28. Texas 

29. Iowa 

30. Wisconsin 

31. California 

32. Minnesota . 

33. Oregon 

34. Kansas 

35. West Virginia 

36. Nevada 

37. Nebraska 

38. Colorado 

39. North Dakota 

40. South Dakota 

41. Montana 

42. Washington 

43. Idaho 

44. Wvoming 

45. Utah 

46. Oklahoma 



Date op Ad- 
mission 



Square 
Miles 



Dec. 
Dec. 
Dec. 
Jan. 2, 
Jan. 9 
Feb. 6 
April 28 
May 23 



June 
June 
July 
Nov. 
May 



Territories 

New Mexico 

Arizona. 

Alaska 

Hawaiian Islands 



March 4 
June 
Jimo 
Feb. 
April 
Dec. 
Dec. 
Dee. 
Dec. 
March 15 
Aug. 10, 
June 15 
Jan. 26 
March 3 
Dec. 29 
Dec. 28 
May 29 
Sept. 9 
May 11 



Feb 

Jan. 29 

June 19 

Oct. 31 

March 1 

Aug. 

Nov. 

Nov. 

Nov. 

Nov. 

July 

July 

Jan. 

Nov. 



1787 
1787 
1787 
1788 
1788 
1788 
1788 
1788 
1788 
1788 
1788 
1789 
1790 
1791 
1792 
1796 
1803 
1812 
1816 
1817 
1818 
1819 
1820 
1821 
1836 
1837 
1845 
1845 
1846 
1848 
1850 
1858 
18.59 
1861 
1863 
1864 
1867 
1876 
1889 
1889 
1889 
1889 
1890 
1890 
1896 
1907 



Organized 

Sept. 9, 1850 

Feb. 24, 1863 

July 27, 1868 

July 6, 1898 



2,050 

45,215 

7,815 

59,475 

4,990 

8,315 

12,210 

30,570 

9,305 

42,450 

49,170 

52,250 

1,250 

9,565 

40,400 

42,050 

41,060 

48,720 

36,350 

46,810 

66,650 

52,250 

33,040 

69,415 

53,850 

58,915 

58,680 

265,780 
56,025 
£6,040 

158,360 
83,365 
96,030 
82,080 
24,780 

110,700 
77,510 

103,925 
70,795 
77,650 

146,080 
69,180 
84,800 
97,890 
84.970 
70,430 



Square 
Miles 
122,460 
112.920 
590,884 
6,449 



Population 
1900 



184,735 

6,302,115 

1,883,669 

2,216,331 

908,355 

2,805,346 

1,190,050 

1,340,316 

411,588 

1,854,184 

7,268,012 

1,893,810 

428,556 

.343,641 

2,147,174 

2,020,616 

4,157,545 

1,381,625 

2,516,462 

1,551,270 

4,821,550 

1,828,697 

694,466 

3,106,665 

1,311,564 

2,420,982 

528,542 

3,048,710 

2,231,853 

2,069,042 

1,485,053 

1,751,394 

413,5.36 

1,470,495 

958,800 

42,335 

1,068,539 

539,700 

319,146 

401,570 

243,329 

518,103 

161,772 

92,531 

276,749 

700,391 



Population 

1900 

195,310 

122,931 

63,592 

154,001 



Colonial Possessions 

Philippine Islands 

Porto Rico 

Guam 

Samoan Islands 

Canal Zone . . 



Acquired 



Feb. 
Feb. 
Feb. 
Feb. 
Feb., 



6, 1899 

6, 1899 

6, 1899 

16, 1900 

1904 



Square 

Miles 

115,026 

3,606 

224 

84 

474 



Population 
1900 
7,635,000 (estimated) 
9.53,343 

9.000 (estimated) 

5,800 (estimated) 

45,000 (estimated) 



Wake Island and other small Islands in the Pacific Ocean were annexed in 1898 as 
" ^vild or unexplored territory." 



531 



PEONOUNCmG INDEX 



WITH PRONUNCIATION OF DIFFICULT NAMES 



KEY TO PRONUNCIATION 



3 as a in sale 
a as a in hat 
a as a in farm 
a as a in tall 
e as e in eve 
8 as e in gSt 
e as e in fern 
g as in g in go 



i as i in kite 
I as i in it 
o as o in go 
6 as o in hot 
6 as o in ford 
OD as 00 in tool 
u as u in use 
li as u in but 



N French nasal, somewhat like ng in tong 



Abolitionists, 275, 312, 313, 314, 
323, 375, 370. 

Aca'diii, 129, 135. 

Adams, Charles Francis, 307. 

Adams, John, 222, 220; biography, 
231; administration, 231-230, 
244. 

Adams, John Quincy, 258, 203; 
biography, 209 ; administration, 
209-271, 275, 330. 

Adams, Samuel, 157, 101, 183. 

Agriculture, in 1703, 143, 144; in 
1820, 200; 1820-1840, 289, 408, 
409. 

Aguinaldo (a-ge-niil' do), 448, 452. 

Alabama, explored, 28; Indians 
in, 43, 44; settled at Mobile, 
120; ceded to England, 137; mi- 
gration into, 188, 239; Creek 
uprising in, 253 ; a Territory, 
200; a State, 203; secedes, 333; 
in the war, 339, 341, 374, 390; 
readmitted, 414; industry in, 
408. 

Alabama, the, 354, 355, 390. 



Alabama claims, 355, 419. 
Alamance, battle of the, 157. 
A' la mo, siege of the, 297. 
Alaska, 417, 457. 
Albany, 110, 110, 133. 
Albeniarle Colony, 99, 100, 101- 

103. 
Albemarle, Duke of, 99. 
Aldrich Rill, 401. 
Alexander VI, bull of, 25. 
Algiers (al-jerz'). La., 370. 
Al gon'quin Indians, 43, 44, 45. 
Alien and Sedition Laws, 232, 233. 
Allen, Ethan, 100, 169. 
A' mfi d;is. Captain, 37. 
Amendments (see Constitution). 
America, discovery of, 10; named, 

23: first inhabitants of, 42. 
Anarchist riot in Chicago. 436; 

assassination of R'^cKinley, 455. 
Anderson, Major, 345-346. 
Andre (iin'drn), John, 198. 
An'dros. Sir Edmund. 87, 89, 110. 
An nap' oils, 90, 133. 159. 100. 211. 
Annexation, of Louisiana, 238; of 



533 



534 



INDEX 



Florida, 259; of Texas, 297; of 
Oregon, 299; of California and 
the West, 304; of Gadsden Pur- 
chase, 304, 315; of Alaska, 417; 
of Hawaii, 451 ; of Wake Island 
and the Samoan Islands, 451; 
of Porto Rico. 451. 

Antietam (ante'tiim), (Sharps- 
burp), battle of, 365. 

Anti- Federalists, 224. 

Ap' po mat' tox, 398. 

Arbitration, of Alabama Claims, 
419; of seal fisheries, 443; of 
Venezuela boundary dispute, 
443; of Alaskan boundary dis- 
pute, 457. 

Archdale, Governor John, 103. 

Arizona, admitted, 402. 

Arkansas, explored, 28, 125, 240; 
admitted, 281; secedes, 347, 348; 
war in, 370, 372, 373, 387; re- 
admission of, 409, 415. 

Arkansas, the, 371. 

Army, Continental, 168, 169, 177, 
178, 179, 184, 194, 198, 204, 205; 
Confederate, 348, 349, 377, 385, 
395, 398, 400, 401, 403. 

Arnold, Benedict, 170, 181, 182, 
197, 2ao. 

Arthur, Chester A., 431; adminis- 
tration, 432-434; biography, 432. 

Articles of Confederation, the, 
207-209. 

Asia, trade routes to, 8; explored 
by Marco Polo, 9; search for 
routes to, 10, 11, 13, 24, 35. 

Assembly, first legislation, 60; 
General, in Massachusetts, 73; 
in Connecticut, 89: in ^lary- 
land, 94; in New York, 115; in 
Pennsylvania, 122 ; conflict of 
governor and, 151 ; opposition 
of, to taxation, 155, 156, 158. 

Assumption of State debts, 225. 

Atlanta, evacuation of, 388. 

Atlantic cable, 326, 418. 

Aviation, 465. 

Ayllon (Il-yon'), 29. 

Paeon's Rebellion, 65. 
P>aglev, Ensign Worth. 449. 
Bal bO' a, 24. 



Baltimore Convention, 330. 

Baltimore, Lords, 92-98. 

Banks, General N. P., 361, 362, 
387. 

Banks, State, 280. 

Barbary States, war with, 238. 

Barlow, Captain, 38. 

Beauregard (bo-re-giird'), General 
P. G. T., 346, 352, 369. 

Bel'knap impeached, 424. 

Bellamont, Earl of, 116. 

Bennett, Richard, 63, 64. 

Bennington, battle of, 181. 

Berkeley, Lord, 117. 

Berkeley, Sir William, 62, 63, 64, 
65, 6(5, 99. 

Bil ox' i, settlement of, 126. 

"Black Codes," 411. 

Blaine, James G., 434. 

Blair, Frank P.. 418. 

Bland Act, 431, 439. 

Blockade of Southern ports, de- 
clared, 350, 353, 354, 355, 3.56; 
effects, 373, 374; completed, 390; 
raised, 410. 

Bon Homme Richard (bo-nom' re- 
shilr'), the, 193. 

Boone, Daniel, 187, 188. 

Booth, John Wilkes, 399. 

Boston, founded, 71; persecution 
in, 84; growth of, 91, 144, 145, 
288, 292, 326; newspapers in, 
146, 275; opposition to British 
in, 153. 157, 159; Parliamentary 
acts affecting, 160, 161; in Revo- 
lution, 163, 167, 172; fire in, 
424. 

Boston IS^ews Letter, 146. 

Boundary disputed between Uni- 
ted States and British America, 
260, 295, 299, 419; Mexico, 300. 

Boxer outbreak, 454. 

Braddock, General, 134. 

Bradford. William, 69, 70. 

Bragg, General, 372, 373. 380, 381. 

Brandy wine, battle of, 182. 

Breckenridge, John C. 330. 

Brook, Lord, 77. 

Brooklvn Bridge, 433. 

Brown," B. Gratz. 422. 

Brown, General Jacob, 249, 254. 

Brown, John, 319, 322. 



INDEX 



535 



f 



Bryan, William J., 444, 455, 4(il; 

biography, 444. 
Bu chan' an, James, 320; admin- 
istration, 320-323 ; biography, 

320. 
Buckner, General S. B., 367, 445. 
Bu'ell, General, 3G7, 3G8, 372. 
Buena Vista (bwiV nil ves' tii), 

battle of, 301, 302. 
Bull Run (Manassas), first, 351; 

seeond. 3G3. 
Bunker Hill, battle of, l(i7, lOS. 
Bur goyne', General, ISO, ISl, 183, 

184. 
Burke, Edmund, 156. 
Burnside, General A. E., 365, 300. 
Burr, Aaron, 234, 241. 
Butler, General B. F., 369, 300, 

392. 
Butler, William 0., 307. 
r.yrd, William, 140. 

Cabeza de Vaca (kil va' tha da vii- 
ka), 29. 

Cabinet, formation of the first, 
223; "Kitehen — ," 273; dissen- 
sions in, 224, 273, 295, 416. 

Cab'ot, John, 22. 

Cabot, Sebastian, 22, 23. 

Caho'kia, 189, 190. 

Calhoun (kal-hoon'), John C, 247, 
258, 263, 271; biography, 278, 
306, 309. 

California, explored, 36, 296; 
Spanish in, 31; annexation of, 
300, 304 ; in Mexican War, 302 ; 
discovery of gold in, 305 ; be- 
comes a State, 307, 311; growtli 
of, 326, 327; race troubles in, 
436, 463. 

California Compromise, 307-311. 

( Til' vert, Cecil, 03-97. 

Calvert, George, First Lord Balti- 
more, 92, 93. 

Calvert George, Third Lord Balti- 
more, 97. 

( 'alvert, Leonard, 93, 95, 96. 

Camden, 195, 196. 

Campbell, Colonel, 186, 191. 

Campbell, Colonel William, 197. 

Canada, explored, 31 ; occupied, 
33, 34, 124; taken by English, 



137; invaded by Continental 
army, 170; War of 1812 in, 249, 
253, 254; boundary adjusted, 295. 

Canby, General, 420. 

Capital, National, Philadelphia, 
180; New York, 222; removed 
to Washington, 225, 234. 

Carolinas, the, first settlements in, 
32, 98 ; origin of name of, 98 ; 
grants of, 99; division of, 103, 
105; iiidustrv in, 144. 

Carpenter's Hall, 161, 102. 

Carpetbaggers, 414, 419, 422. 

Ciir' ter et. Sir George, 117. 

Cartier (kiir'tya'), Jacques, 31. 

Carver, John, 68, 69. 

Cass, Lewis, 307, 314. 

Caswell, Colonel, 171. 

Catholics, 30, 35, 92, 94, 124, 128. 

Cavaliers, in Virginia, 02, 63. 

Centennial Exposition, 426. 

Cerro Gordo (ser' ru gOr do) , 
battle of, 302. 

Cervera (Thar-va' ra) , Admiral, 
449, 451. 

Chaff'ee, General Adna B., 455. 

Chalmette, battle of, 255. 

Champion Hills, battle of, 379. 

Champlain (shrim-])lrin') , 33, 34. 

Chancellorsvillc, battle of, 382. 

Charles I, and Virginia, 62, 03 ; 
and New England, SO, 82, 83; 
and Maryland, 92, 95; and tlie 
Carolinas, 98, 99. 

Charles II, and Virginia, 64, 65, 
66; and New England, SO, 85. 
86, 87; and Maryland, 96; and 
the Carolinas, 99. 

Charles VIII of France, 3. 

CHiarles IX of France, 32, 98. 

Charleston, found<'d, 103; growth 
of, 104, 105; in Queen Anne's 
War, 129 ; in Revolutionary War, 
171, 172, 191, 195, 200; railroad 
to, 287, 288 ; convention at, 330 ; 
in the War of Secession, 342, 
343, 345, 346, 390, 397; earth- 
quake at, 462. 

Charlexton Mcrcnrn, 333. 

"Charter oak," 88. 

Chase, Salmon P., 311, 317. 

Chattanooga, 380, 381. 



536 



INDEX 



Cher' o kees, 44, 270. 

Cherry valley, massacres in, 18(i. 

Chesapeake, the, 242, 251. 

Chicago, fire in, 424; anarchists 
in, 436; World's Fair at. 44:5. 

Cliick a niaug' a, battle of. 380. 

Chickasaw l^ayou, battle of, 372. 

China, trouble with, 454. 

Chinese, exclusion of, 436; atti- 
tude towaid, 464. 

Chip' pe wa, battle of, 254. 

Christiana, Fort, 112. 

Church of England ( Episcopal 
Church), 67, 71, 82, 85, 115, 120, 
148, 149. 

Cibola (se'bola), 29. 

Cities, colonial, 114, 143; develop- 
ment of, 218, 284, 324, 465. 

Civil Rights Bill, 412. 

Civil-service reform, 432, 437. 

Clai' borne, William, 63, 94-96. 

Clarendon Colony, 100, 103-105. 

Clarendon, Earl of, 99. 

Clark, George Rogers, 189, 190. 

Clark, William, 240. 

Clay, Henry, urges war with Eng- 
land, 247; supports tariff, 262: 
Presidential candidate, 263, 277, 
298; introduces tariff compro- 
mise, 279; opposes annexation of 
Texas, 298; inti-oduces Comjjro- 
niise of 1850. 308. 309, 311; 
biography of, 308; influence of, 
319. 

Clermont, the 245. 

Cleveland, Grover, 434, 440; l)iog- 
raphv, 435; administrations, 
435-438, 441-445. 

Clinton, DeWitt, 248, 28(). 

Clinton, George, 241. 

Clinton, Sir Henry, 185, 195, 
200. 

Cockburn, Admiral, 255. 

Cold Harbor, battle of, 391. 

Colfax, Schuyler, 417. 

Coligny (ko-len'ye) Admiral, 32. 

Colonies, life in the, 66, 67, 73-75, 
138-148. 

Colorado, admission of, 426. 

Columbia College, 2()8. 

Columbian Exposition, 443. 

Columbus, Christo[)her, 13-21. 



Commerce, to the East, 7-9; J"ng- 
lish, 49, 105; of New England, 
90, 143; laws hindering, 151, 
209; in 1789, 217; attacked by 
England and France, 228, 241- 
243, 246; in 1820-1840, 285; 
legislation concerning, 459. 

Conunonwealth, the, 63. See also 
Cromwell. 

Communication, in the colonies, 
144, 14.5, 161; in 1789, 215, 217, 
220; in 1820, 264, 265; 1820- 
1840, 284-289; 1840-1860, 324- 
327; since 1865, 418, 456, 466, 
467. 

Compromise, Missouri, 261. 

Concord (knnk'urd), tight at, 163- 
165. 

Confederate States, formed, 338; 
final defeat of, 399; losses and 
hardships in, 401, 406; rein- 
statement of, 408-415. 

Confederation, New P^ngland, 82. 
S3, 84. 

Confei'ence of fiovernors. 460. 

Congregational Church in Ameri- 
ca, 72, 79, 148. 

Congress, first Colonial, 116; C(m- 
tinental, 161, 167, 169, 184, 206, 
207: and reconstruction, 411, 
412. 

Coimecticut. 77-80, 256. 

C(inscri}iti()n Law, 377. 

Constitution, first, written in 
America, 79. 

Constitution of the United States, 
the first, 207-210; convention to 
revise the, 211, 212; provisions 
of the, 212; adopted, 214; inter- 
pretation of the, 224; amend- 
ments to the, 226, 408, 412, 415. 

Constitution, the, 250. 

Convention, Annapolis, 133; Al- 
bany, 133; Philadelphia, 161; 
Charlotte (N. C), 173; Vir- 
ginia, 173; Constitutional, 211, 
212; Hartford, 256; Baltimore, 
330. 

"Conwav Cabal" (ka-bal'), 18.3. 

Cor' Tntii. battle of. 373. 

Cornwallis, Lord, 179, 196, 197, 
199, 200, 202. 



INDEX 



537 



Coronado (ko ro nil' tlio), 2!). 

Corjwrations. See Trusts. 

Correspoiulence, Coniniittees of, 
l(il. 

Cor' tez, Her nan' do, 29. 

Cotton gill, invented, 230. 

Cotlon, indusliy aided by the gin, 
2;?(), 2(>(i; fi-e'iglit rates on, 320; 
and war eoiiditions, 340, 355, 
370, 374, 38!J. 

County system, 148. 

Cowpens, battle of, 199. 

"Coxey's Army," 441. 

Crawford, William H., 258, 263. 

Credit Mobilier (era de mo be ly a) , 
424. 

Creeks, the, trouble with, 253, 270. 

Cro a toan', 40, 41. 

Cromwell, Oliver, 02, 03, 80. 

Crown Point, 100. 

Cuba, early history of, 17, 19, 21, 
27: attempt to seize, 420; in 
Spanish War, 445-452 ; protec- 
torate over, 452, 454. 

Cumberland Eoad, 285. 

Currency, Continental, 178, 204; 
under Articles of Confederation. 
208, 209; specie payments, 420; 
scarcity of, 423; silver demonet- 
ized, 424 ; Bland Act concerning, 
431; Sherman Act, 439, 441; 
free coinage of silver, 424, 439; 
Confederate, 349, 374, 404. 

Custer, General, 420. 

Dale, Sir Thomas, 58, 59. 

Dare, Virginia, 39. 

Dartmouth College, 208. 

Davenport, John, 80. 

Davis, Henry G., 458. 

Davis, Jefl'erson, secession address, 

334; elected President of the 

Confederacy, 338 ; biography, 

338 ; calls for privateers, 35.3 ; 

imprisoned, 400; case dropped, 

407. 
Dearborn, General, 249, 253. 
Debt, the National, 225. 
Debtors, in England, 105 ; in 

America, 100, 107, 292. 
Declaration of Independence, 173- 

175. 



Declaration of Rights, 155. 

Declaratory Act, 156. 

Delaware, l^ord, 57, 58. 

DelaM'are, 112, 113, 122, 123, 347. 

Democratic Party. See Part v. 

Detroit, 127, 249l 

Dewey, George, 448. 

Dickinson, John, 175, 212. 

Diiigley Tariil Bill, 454. 

Dinwid'die, Governor, 132. 

Disasters, 402, 403. 

Discovery, the, 52. 

Dongan, Governor Thomas, 115. 

Dorr's Kebellion, 295. 

Douglas, Stephen A., 310, 321. 

Draft Act, 378; riots, 378. 

Drake, Sir Francis, 36, 37, 38. 

Dred Scott Decision, 321. 

Dress, in New England, 91; in the 
colonies in the eighteenth cen- 
tury, 142. 

Duke of York. See James 11. 

Dunmore, Lord, 105, 160, 171. 

Duquesne (dukan'), 131, 132, 
134, 135. 

Dutch, ex])loration, 34; coloniza- 
tion, 109-114; slave ships, 60; 
in Connecticut valley, 77, 82; in 
Delaware, 112. 

Eads, James B., 467. 

Early, General Jubal A., 392, 393. 

Earthquakes, 402. 403. 

East India Company, Dutcli, 35; 

English, 50, 51. 
E' den ton, 159. 
Edison, Thomas A., 407. 
Education, in the colonies, 00, 07, 

75, 91, 145, 140; of the Indians, 

83 ; j)rogress in, 268, 408. 
El Caney (elka'na), battle of, 

450. 
Electoral Commission, 429. 
Electoral vote, 436. 
Electricity, 288, 326, 328, 4()0, 4t>7. 
Eliot. Joiin, 83. 

Elizabeth. Queen, 35, 37. 38,41, 50. 
Emancipation Proclamation, 376, 

408. 
Embargo Act, 243, 246. 
Endicott. John, 72. 
Engineering feats, 433, 



538 



INDEX 



England, in fifteenth century, 4; 
exploration, 21, 22, 35-42; con- 
ditions in, affecting colonization, 
40, 62, (J7, 71, 92, 105, 119; 
conllict with Dutcli. 77, 82, 113; 
attitude of, in 1861, 355. 

English, Edward S., 432. 

Ericson, Leif (lif er' ik son) , G, 7. 

Erie Canal, 265, 286. 

Established Church. See Church 
of England. 

Estaing, d' (des-tan'). Count, 186, 
191. 

Eutaw (u'taw) Springs, battle of, 
200. 

Exposition, Crystal Palace, 329; 
Chicago, 443; Buffalo, 455; St. 
Louis, 458 ; Jamestown, 459. 

Express business, 288. 

Fair Oaks, battle of, 360. 

Fairbanks, Charles W., 458. 

Fjir ra gtit, Admiral David G., 369, 
390. 

Federal Hall, 222. 

Federalist, the, 223. 

Federalists. See Party. 

Ferdinand of Spain, 4, 14, 17, 19. 

Ferguson, Colonel, 197. 

Field, Cyrus W., 326. 

Field, James G., 440. 

Fillmore, Millard, biography, 311; 
administration, 312, 320. 

Fires, 424, 463. 

Fitch, John, 245. 

Five intolerable acts of Parlia- 
ment, the, 160. 

Florida, explored, 27; settled, 30; 
colonial warfare with, 108, 129, 
131; ceded to England, 137; In- 
dian uprising in, 258, 259 ; pur- 
chase of, 259 ; admitted, 296 ; se- 
cession of, 333 ; readmission of, 
414; in 1875, 422. 

Force Acts, 421. 

"Force Bill," 279. 

Forrest, General N. B., 371, 386. 

"Forty-Ninors," 305. 

France, in fifteenth century, 2 ; ex- 
ploration, 31-34; occupation of 
Canada, 124; in western valleys, 
124-127, 130; wars with Eng- 



land, 128-137; relations with 

tlie United States, 183, 184, 227, 

232, 241-243; in Mexico, 410. 
Franklin, Benjamin, 133, 183, 184, 

212. 
Franklin, State of, 210. 
Fredericksburg, battle of, 365. 
Free Soil I'arty. See Party. 
Freedman's Bureau, 412. 
Fremont (fre-mont'). General J. 

C, 296, 302, 320, 353. 
French and Indian War, 131-137; 

effects of, 150, 153, 154. 
Frenchtown, massacre at, 251. 
Friends. See Quakers. 
Frolie, the, 250. 
Fugitive slave laws, 308, 309, 311, 

312, 313, 318, 321, 337. 
Fulton, Robert, 245. 

Gads' den Purchase, 304, 315. 

"Gag Law," 306. 

Gage, General, 163, 167. 

Gal' la tin, Albert, 265. 

Gama, Vasco da (vas' co dil gli'- 
mii), 20. 

Garfield, James A., 431, 432; bi- 
ography, 432. 

Garrison, William Lloyd, 275, 
306. 

Gaspee (gtispa'), the, 159. 

Gates, General Horatio, 181, 183, 
196, 198, 199. 

Gates, Sir Thomas, 57. 

Genet (zhe-na'), Minister, 227. 

Geneva Award, the, 419. 

Genoa (jeno-a), 13. 

Geographies, Ancient, 10, 11. 

George I, 130. 

George II, 106, 130, 182. 

George III, 153, 155, 162, 173. 

Georgia, name of, 106; first settle- 
ments of, 105-109; trouble with 
Indians, 270; secedes, 333; read- 
mitted, 415. 

Georgia, University of, 268. 

Gerry, Elbridge T., 212. 

Gettysburg (get' iz burg), battle of, 
383—385 

Ghent (gent), Treaty of, 256. 

Gilbert, Sir Humphrey, 37. 

Godspeed, the, 52, 



INDEX 



S39 



Goffe, William, 85. 

Gold, discovery of, 305. 

Golden Hind, the, 36. 

Golds' bor o, N. C, 397. 

Go' Had, Texas, 297. 

Goodyear, Charles, 327. 

Gorges (gor-jez), Ferdinando, 81. 

Gorges, Sir Ferdinand, 52. 

Gos' nold, Bartholomew, 49. 

Gourgos, Dominique de (do' me- 
nek de goorg'), 33. 

Government, colonial, 147, 150- 
101. (See also under names of 
colonies.) 

Grady, Henry W., 377, 40G. 

Graham, William A., 31(1. 

"Grand Model," the, 101. 

Grant, Ulysses S., in the West, 
367, 368; in campaigns against 
Vicksburg, 371,378-380; in com- 
mand of Union armies, 387 ; in 
Virginia, 391, 392, 395-398; bi- 
ography, 418; administrations, 
418-429. 

Grasse, Count de (de gras'), 202. 

Graves, Admiral, 202. 

Great Bridge, battle of, 171. 

Gree' ley, Horace, 422. 

Greenback Party. See Party. 

Greene, General Nathanael, 195, 
199, 200. 

Grenville (gren'-vil). Sir Richard, 
38. 

Guadalupe Hidalgo (gvvil' tha-loo'- 
pfi e thill go, or gii' da-loop he- 
dal'go), treaty of, 304. 

Guam (gwilm), 452. 

Guerricre (ger re ar) , the, 250. 

Guilford (gil'-ferd), Courthouse, 
battle of, 199. 

Eahcas corpus, writ of, 375, 422. 

Hakluyt, Sir Richard, 50. 

Hale, John P., 314. 

Hale, Nathan. 176. 

Half Moon, the, 35. 

Halleck, General, 363, 367. 

Hamburg (S. C), railroad to, 287. 

Hamilton, Alexander, 210, 212, 
223, 224, 229, 231, 241; biog- 
raphy, 223. 

Hamilton, Colonel, 190. 



Hanipden-Sidney College, 268. 

Hampton (Va.), first free school, 
145. 

Hampton, General Wade, 392. 

Hampton Roads, 356. 

Hancock, General Winficld Scott, 
432. 

Hancock, John, 167, 183. 

Harper's Ferry, 322, 364, 383. 

Harrisburg (Miss.), battle of, 386. 

Harrisburg (Pa.), Confederate ad- 
vance on, 383. 

Harrison, Benjamin, nominated, 
438; biography, 438; adminis- 
tration, 439, 440. 

Harrison, William Henry, defeats 
Indians, 247; in War of 1812, 
251; in election of 1836, 281; 
nominated, 283; biography, 294; 
administration, 294-299. 

Harrison's Landing, 363. 

Hartford ( Conn. ) , 79 ; convention, 
256, 336. 

Harvard College, 75, 138. 

Harvey, Sir John, 62, 64. 

Havana in the Spanish War, 446. 

Hawaii (hiiwi'e), revolution in, 
442; annexed, 452; voyage of 
the fleet to, 460. 

Hayes, Rutherford B., nominated, 
427 ; biography, 429 ; adminis- 
tration, 429-431. 

Hayne, Robert Y., 276. 

Heath, Sir Robert, 99. 

Hendricks, Thomas A., 427, 434. 

Henry IV of France, 33. 

Henry, Patrick, argues Parson's 
case, 149; opposes the Stamp 
Act, 155 ; opposes Governor, 
165, 166; Governor of Virginia, 
190; in Federal convention, 211. 

Henry, Prince, the Navigator, 11, 
13. 

Hepburn Bill, 459. 

"Hermitage," the, 281. 

Hessians, the, 173, 181, 193. 

Hobart, Garrett A., 445. 

Hobkirk Hill, battle of, 200. 

Hobson, Lieutenant R. P., 449. 

Hoe, Richard M., 328. 

Holland, in the Revolution, 194, 
203. 



\ 



540 



INDEX 



"Holy Alliancp," the, 2f)2. 
Hood, General John B., 388, 389. 
Hooker, General Joseph, 3(it>, 381, 

382, 383. 
Hooker, Thomas, 78. 
Horseshoe Bend, battle of, 253. 
House of Burgesses. See X'irginia, 

government in. 
Houston, Sam, 297. 
Howe, Elias, 328. 
Howe, General, 1(57, 173, 175, 182, 

185. 
Hudson, Henry, 35. 
Huguenots (hiV genots) , 32, 193, 

104, 128. 
Hull, Captain Isaac, 250. 
Hull, General William, 249. 
Hutchinson, !Mrs. Anne, 74, 70. 

Iherville (e her vel'), 120. 

Idaho, admitted, 439. 

Illinois, explored, 124; admitted, 
201. 

Impressment of seamen, 228, 242, 
243, 247. 

Inauguration day, 214. 

Indented seivants, (10, CO, 139, 218. 

Independence Hall, 1()7, 174. 

Independents, 08. 

India. See Trade routes. 

Indian Territory, formation of, 
282 

Indiana, 127, 189, 257. 

Indians, origin of name, 17 ; 
Pueblo, 29; Croatan, 41; distri- 
bution of tribes, 42-44 ; life of, 
44-48; warfare with, 01, 04, 05, 
09, 79, 80, 102, 153, 188, 220, 
252, 253. 259, 282, 425; educa- 
tion of, 83; treaties with, 107, 
121, 271; as French allies, 110, 
128, 129, 131, 134, 135; as Tory 
allies, 181, 180; in War of 1812, 
252, 253; removed to reserva- 
tions, 270, 282. 

Industries, in the colonies, 59, 71, 
74, 90, 91, 97, 110, 143, 144; 
in 1789, 220; in 1814, 257; in 
1820, 200, 207; in 1840, 287, 
289, 290; in 1800, 327-329; 
since 1865, 418, 405-470. 

Ingersoll, Jared, 248. 



Insular possessions, 405. 

Internal improvements, 204, 270, 

271, 284-288, 324-327, 418. 
Interstate Commerce Commission, 

435. 
Inventions, 220, 288-292, 327-329, 

400, 407. 
Invisible Empire, the, 421. 
Iowa admitted, 305. 
Ironclads, battJe of the, 350. 
Iroquois (irokwoi'), 43, 18G. 
Isabella of Spain, 4, 14, 15, 17, 19. 
Italians, in New Orleans, 404. 
Italy, in the lifteenth century, 3. 

Jackson, Andrew, defeats the In- 
dians, 253; defeats the British 
at New Orleans, 255; nomina- 
ted, 203, 209; administration, 
272-282; biography, 272. 

Jackson, General Thomas J. 
("Stonewall"), in INIexican War. 
304, 351; bi-^graphv, 351; in 
War of Secession, 351, 3Cl-3tN, 
382, 383. 

.lames 1, 51, 52, 59, 01, 02, 81, 92. 

James 11, 87, 88, 114, 115, 110, 
118. 

.Jamestown, 52 57, 00, 459. 

Japan, treaty with, 310. 

Jasper, Sergeant, 172, 191. 

Java, the, 250. 

Jay, John, Chief Justice, 228. 

JetTerson, Thomas, writes Declara- 
tion of Independence, 174; Sec- 
retary of State, 223; strict con- 
structionist, 224 ; Vice President, 
231; suggests Kentucky resolu- 
tions, 233; elected President, 
234; administrations, 237-245; 
biography, 237 ; estimate of, 243. 

Jesuits (jes'uits), 124, 125, 130. 

John, King of Portugal, 5, 14. 

Johnson, Andrew, War Governor 
of Tennessee, 307; administra- 
tion, 407-418; biography, 409. 

Johnston, General Albert Sidney, 
300, 367. 308. 

Johnston, General Joseph E., at 
Manassas, 352 ; in Mississippi, 
379 ; succeeds General Bragg, 
382; opposed by Sherman, 387, 



INDEX 



541 



388; removed from eommaml, 
388; commands in the Caro- 
linas, 396-399. 

Johnstown, flood at, 403. 

Joliet (zho'lea). Louis, 125. 

.Tones, Jolni Paul, 102, 193. 

Jaiii-iKil of ('oiiinicrcc, the, 288. 

Kalb, Baron de, 180, 190. 

Kansas, explored, 29; troubles in, 
310-319; a campaign issue, 320, 
323; admitted, 323. 

Kansas-Nebraska Bill, 310-319, 
320. 

Kaskas'kia. 190. 

Kearney (kilr'ni). General Ste- 
piien'W., 302, 303 (map). 

Kearsarge (ker'siirj), tlie, 35S. 

Kentucky, first settlements in, 
188; moves to separate from 
Virginia, 210; admitted, 226; 
Ivesolution of, 233 ; and seces- 
sion, 348; the Avar in, 300, 3()7, 
372', 373 ; and emancipation, 376 ; 
raids in, 380. 

Kern, John W., 461. 

Kev. Francis Scott, 255. 

Kieft (keft). Governor Peter, 112. 

King, Rufus, 241. 258. 

King George's War, 130. 

King Philip's War, 86. 

King William's War, 128. 

King's ^Mountain, battle of, 197. 

'"ivitchen Cabinet," 274. 

Know-Nothing Party, 319, 331. 

Knox, Henry, 223, 224. 

Ku Klux Kian (kii kinks'), 421. 

Labor, in 1789, 218, 219; in 1820, 
267; in 1877 (organization of 
unions), 431; imported, 436; 
tnmbles. 436, 442, 462; in tiie 
South, 469. 

Lafayette (la fa yet'), IVlarquis de, 
18(). 182, 202." 

Lake Erie, battle of, 252. 

Lane, Ralph, 38. 

La Salle, Robert de (ro'bairr de 
lii sal'). 12.5-127. 

Las Guas' i mas, battle of, 450. 

Laurens, John, 199. 

Lawrence, Captain, 251, 



lAtirrciicc, the, 252. 

Lee, Fort, 170. 

Lee, General Charles, 177, 183. 185. 

Lee, General Fitzluigh, 44t), 447. 

Lee, Major Henry ("Light Horse 

Harry"), 192, 200, 300. 
Lee, Richard Henry, 101, 174. 
Lee, Robert E., in Mexican War, 
304 ; captures John Brown, 322 ; 
resigns from Federal service, 
334; quoted, 334. 341, 383, 380, 
399 ; commands Confederate ar- 
my in Virginia, 360; biography, 
360; in Virginia and Maryland, 
1802, 303-300; in Virginia and 
Pennsylvania, 1863. 382-386; 
opposed by Grant, 387. 390-392, 
396-398; 'surrenders, 398; dis- 
bands army. 399. 
Lee, General Stephen D., 372. 
Legislature. See Congress and 

Assembly. 
Leisler's (les'ler) Rel)eHi(iii, llli. 
Le(m. Ponce de ( i)on' Ilia, de la 

on'). 27. 
LcoiHird, the, 242. 
Lewis and Clark expedition, 240. 
Lewis, General Andrew, 18!). 
Lexington, battle of, 163-165. 
Liliaokalani (le le o6 6 ka lii' ne) , 

(^ueen, 442. 
Lincoln, Abraham, candidate for 
Senator, 321; in election of 
1860, 332; inaugurati(m, 343, 
344; biography, 343; and Fort 
Sumter, 345; calls for volun- 
teers, 347 ; declares blockade, 
353 ; and captured privateers- 
men, 354; annuls emancipation 
decrees, 375; suspends writ of 
liaheas corpus, 375; issues eman- 
ci])ation proclamation, 370, 377; 
and Draft Act, 378; renom- 
inated and elected, 394; and 
prisoners of war. 395 ; assassin- 
ation of, 399; and reconstruc- 
tion, 400, 408, 409, 410. 
Lincoln, General Benjamin, 191, 

195, 202. 210. 
Line of demarcation, 25, 2(). 
Literature, American, in 1824, 
208; in 1840, 293; in 1860, 329. 



542 



INDEX 



Little Belt, the, 247. 

"Little Giant," the, 317. 

Little Turtle, defeats General St. 
Clair, 226. 

Locke, John, 100. 

Logan, John A., 434. 

London Company, 51, 52, 55, 50, 
61, 68. 

Long, Crawford W., 327. 

Long island, battle of, 175. 

Longstreet, General James, 384. 

"Lost colony." See Roanoke. 

Louis XIV, 125, 126, 128, 129. 

Louis XVI, 184, 227. 

Louisburg (loo' is burg), 130, 135. 

Louisiana (Province), claimed for 
France, 125 ; ceded to Spain, 137 ; 
ceded to France, 238; explored, 
240; purchased by the United 
States, 239 ; exposition celebrat- 
ing purchase of, 458. 

Louisiana ( State ) , admitted, 248 ; 
in War of 1812, 255; in War 
of Secession, 333, 369, 370, 387 ; 
and reconstruction, 409 ; read- 
mitted, 415 ; "carpetbag" gov- 
ernment in, 422 ; in the election 
of 1876, 428 ; representative 
government restored in, 430 ; 
trouble with "Mafia" in, 464. 

Lower California, 315. 

Linidy's Lane, battle of, 254. 

Luzon (looznn'), 453. 

Lyon, General Nathaniel, 353. 

McCIellan, General George 13., 351, 
359-366, 394. 

McCrea (mae-cra'), Jane, 181. 

Maedonough (macdon'O), Com- 
modore Thomas, 254. 

McDowell, General Irwin, 361, 3(i2. 

McHenry, Fort, 255. 

McKinley, William, nominated, 
445; biography, 445; adminis- 
trations, 445-455; assassinated, 
455. 

McKinley Tariff, the, 439. 

Macedonian (mas e do' ni an), the, 
250. 

Madison, James, ])roposes stronger 
central government, 210; drafts 
Constitution, 212; proposes Vir- 



ginia Eesolutions, 233; adminis- 
trations, 245-258; biography of, 
245. 

Mafia (ma-fe'ii), the, 464. 

Magellan (ma-jel'an), Ferdinand, 
24. 

IMagruder, General J. B., 351, 360, 
392. 

Maine, 81, 210. 261. 

M(iin(\ the, 446. 

Ma-nas'sas, 351, 363. 

Manhattan Island, 110, 176. See 
also New York (City). 

Manila (ma nil' lii), battle of, 448. 

Manufacturing, in 1763, 143; in 
1789, 216, 220; in 1820, 267; in 
1840, 290; in 1860, 329; since 
1865, 470. 

Marion, General, 195, 200. 

Marquette (miirket'), 124, 125. 

Marshall, John, 236, 271, 337; 
biography, 236. 

Maryland, settlement of, 92-98; 
name of, 92 ; government in, 92, 
93, 97, 98 ; religious toleration 
in, 93, 94; claims Delaware, 
122; disputes rights to the Po- 
tonuic, 211; gives District of 
Columbia, 234. 

Mason and Dixon's Line, 123. 

Mason, Captain John, 79. 

Mason, James M., 354. 

Mason, John, 81. 

Mason, Senator, 309. 

Massachusetts, settled, 68-75 ; 
early government in, 72, 85, 89 ; 
persecutions in, 70, 84, 85, 90; 
charter of, violated, 152; loses 
Maine, 210; ratifies Constitu- 
ti(m, 214; nullification in, 243; 
tliH'atens secession. 336. 

Massachusetts Bay Colony found- 
ed, 71. 

Massachusetts Bay Company, 71, 
72. 

Mas sa soit', 70, 75, 86. 

Mavunee River ( ma me') , battle at 
the, 226. 

Maury, Commodore M. F., 326, 
328, 344. 

■Maximilian, 41(). 

Mayjloicvr, the, 68. 



INDEX 



543 



Mayflower Compact, the, 68. 

Meade, General George, 383, 384. 

Mecklenburg County (N. C.) de- 
clares independence, 173. 

Memphis, 371. 

Menendez (mi nan'dath), Pe' dro, 
33. 

Mtrrimac, the, iu Hampton 
Roads, 350. 

Merrimac, the, at Santiago, 449. 

Merritt, General Wesley A., 448. 

Methodist Church in America, 108. 

Mexico, Spanish coTiqvu'st of, 29 ; 
Texan revolution from, 2!)(), 297; 
war of United States with, 300- 
304; French attempt in, 41G. 

Michigan, in War of 1812, 249, 
251; admitted, 281. 

Miles, General Nelson A., 451. 

Miller, Deputy Governor, 102. 

Minis, Fort, 253. 

Minnesota, admitted. 323. 

Min'uit, Governor Peter, 110, 112. 

Minute-men, 103, 104. 

Missionary Pidge, battle of, 381. 

Mississippi, explored, 28; migra- 
tion to, 239; admitted, 200; in 
the War of Secession, 333, 309- 
373, 378-380, 380; readmitted, 
415. 

Mississippi liiver, the, discovered, 
28; explored, 124-127; con- 
trolled by the French, 127; con- 
trolled by the Federals, 309, 
380. 

Missouri, admission of, 201; in 
the War of Secession, 353. 

Missouri Compromise, 201, 307, 
312, 321, 341. 

Mobile founded, 120. 

Mobile Bay, battle of, 390. 

Mo' docs, viprising of the, 425. 

Monitor, the, 357. 

Monmouth, battle of, 185. 

Monroe, James, negotiates treaty 
with England, 243; administra- 
tions, 258-208; biography, 258. 

Monroe Doctrine, 202, 417, 444. 

Montana admitted, 439. 

Montcalm, Marquis de, 135, 130. 

Monterey (mon-tera'), siege of, 
301. 



Montgomery, Confederacy organ- 
ized at, 338, 341. 

Montgomery, Geneial, 170, 171. 

"Monticello" (mOn te cliel'lr)), 244, 
245. 

Moore's Creek, battle of, 171, 172. 

Moravians, 108. 

Morgan, General Daniel, 108, 171, 
181, 199. 

Morgan, General John II., 380. 

Mormons, the, 290. 

Morris, Robert, 178, 204, 292. 

Morse, Samuel F. P., 288, 289. 

Morton, Levi P., 438. 

Moultrie, Fort, 171, 172, 340. 

Moultrie (mOl' tri) ,. William, 172. 

Mound builders, 42. 

Alount Vernon, 204, 230. 

"Mugwumps." See Party. 

Murfreesboro, battle of, 380. 

Napoleon I, 238, 239, 242, 240. 

Napoleon III, 410. 

Nar ra gan' sett Indians, 70. 

Narvaez (n:lr-va'ath), 29. 

Nashville, battle of, 389. 

Nassau, Fort, 110. 

National Bank, the, establishment 
of, 225; discontinued, 248; a 
new, 257; a. campaign issue, 
271, 280; charter of, vetoed, 
279, 280; abolished, 280; re- 
placed by sub-treasuries, 282; 
bill vetoed by Tyler, 295. 

Naturalization law, 233. 

Navigation Acts, 151. 

Navy the, beginnings of, 192 ; de- 
partment established, 232; re- 
spected abroad, 250; in 1805, 
400; in 1885, 430; eflect of ter- 
ritorial expansion on, 452; in 
1908, 400. 

Nebraska, admitted, 417. 

Necessity, Fort, 132. 

Neutrality, proclamation, 227 ; pol- 
icy of, 231. 

New Amsterdam, 110, HI, ll;{, 
114. 

New England, origin of name, 50 
(facsimile); united, 82; under 
Andros, 87-89; in 17(H), 90, 91; 
in wars with the French, 128, 



544 



INDEX 



12!); ill 170:5, 142-148: in 178!), 
216; and slavery. 24!); and st>- 
t-ession, 239, 250; and Kansas, 
317. 

New England Confederacy, 82-84. 
87. 

New Hampshire, 81, 210. 

New Jersey, settled, 117-119, 122; 
in the Revolution. 177, 179, 18.5, 
180. 

New Mexico, organized as Terri- 
tory, 308; slavery optional in, 
316; becomes a State, 462. 

New Netherland, 110-114, 122. 

New Orleans (or'leanz), found- 
ed, 127; port closed, 238; 
growth of, 248; battle of, 255; 
"Mafia' in, 464. 

New Sweden, 112. 

New York (City) taken by tlie 
British, 173; evacuated, 203; 
Draft riot in, 378. See also 
New Amsterdam. 

New York (State) explored, 35: 
settled, 109-110; in intercoloiiial 
wars, 128, 129; in Revolution. 
175, 176, 180-182; and seces- 
sion, 335. 

Newspapers, colonial, 146, 153; 
since 1789, 266. 28S. 

Niagara (niagarii). Fort, 135. 

Niagara, the, 252. 

Nina (ne'nya), the, 16. 

Nominating Conventions, the be- 
ginning of, 277. 

Non-Intercourse Act, the, 242, 243. 

Norsemen, voyages of the, 6. 

North Carolina, first settlements 
in, 38-42, 100-103; opposition to 
taxation in, 150; oppression by 
governors in, 150; loses north- 
western counties. 210; ratifies 
Constitution, 214, 225; emanci- 
pation of slaves in, 275; read- 
mitted, 414. 

North Carolina, University of, 
268. 

North Dakota, admitted. 439. 

Northwest Territory, occupied ])v 
the English, 189,' 190; ceded to 
Federal Government, 207. 208; 
Ordinance for government of, 



214, 215; migration to. 217: 
slavery prohibited in, 218; edu- 
cation in, 219, 266; in War of 
1812, 252; growth of, 261. 

Nova Scotia, 129, 131, 135. 

Nueces (nwfi' ses) River, 300. 

Nullification, in Virginia and 
Kentucky Resolutions, 233; in 
resolutions of Hartford Conven- 
tion. 25() ; of tariff' law, 271: 
asserted by Hayne. 276; ordi- 
nance in South Carolina, 277, 
278; end of, 279. 

Ogdensburg, battle of, 249. 
Oglethorpe (o' g'l thorp), General 

James Edward, 105-109. 
O'Hara, General, 202. 
Ohio, first settlements in, 189, 

190; admitted to the Union, 

239. 
Ohio Company, the, 131. 
Oklahoma, Territory. 439; State, 

460. 
"Old Hickory," 253. 
"Old Ironsides," 250. 
"Old Rough and Readv,"' 301. 
Omnibus Bill, 3U8. 
Opecancanough (o pek an kii'no), 

54. 
Orders in council. 242. 246, 247. 
Ordinance of 1787. 215. 218. 219. 
Oregon country explored, the, 36, 

240, 296 ; boundary of. 260, 30U ; 

settled, 296. 
Oregon, the, 449. 
Orleans, Territory of, 248. 
Os ce o' la, 282. 
Ostend ISIanifesto, 315. 
Otis, James, 152. 

Pacific Railroad, 418. 
Pak' en ham. General. 255. 
Palmer, John M., 445. 
Pil'los. 16. 
Panama Canal, 456. 
Panama. Republic of, 457. 
Pan-American Congress, first. 270. 
Pan-American Exposition. 455. 
Panic, of 1837, 281; of 1873, 423; 

of 1893. 441: of 1907, 459. 
Parker, Alton B., 458. 



INDEX 



545 



Parsons' Case, 140. 

Party, origin of, Federalist, 224, 
202; Anti-Federalist, or Repuh- 
lican, 224; Democratic-Republi- 
can, 2(12, 271; National Repub- 
licans, or Whigs. 271, lU!); 
Democratic, 271: States' Rights, 
271; Anti-Mason, 277; Free- 
Soil, 807; American, 319; Know- 
Notliing, 31f); New Republican, 
320; Constitutional Union, 331; 
Liberal Republican, 422; Prohi- 
bitionist, 423; Greenback, 427: 
Creenback-Labor-Anti-Alonopoly, 
434; "Mugwump," 434; Peo- 
ple's, 440; Labor, 440; Gold 
Democrat, 445. 

Patent oflice established, 201. 

Patriots, use of name, 103. 

Pa troon' system. 110, 111. 

Paulus (pa'lus) Hook. 102. 

Peace Conference, the (1801). 341. 

Peninsula campaign, the, 300. 

Penn, Admiral, 120, 121. 

Penn, William, and New Jersey, 
117, 110; and Pennsylvania, 
110 122; and Delaware, 123. 

Pennsylvania, Colony of, 120-123. 

Pennsylvania, University of, 208. 

Pensions, 437, 430. 

People's Party. See Party. 

Pep' per ell. Sir William, 130. 

Pe' quot War, the, 79. 

Perry, Oliver Hazard, 252. 

Personal liberty laws, 312, 341. 

Petersburg, siege of, 306-308. 

Philadelphia, founded, 121; growth 
of, 121, 145, 210,218; National 
Capital, 182. 

Philip 11 of Spain, 30. 

Philippine Islands, the, discov- 
ered, 25 ; in Spanish-American 
war, 448; annexed, 452; ins\ir- 
rection in, 453; government of, 
453; Heet at, 4(]0. 

Phipps, Sir William, 120. 

Phonograph, 407. 

Pickens, General Andrew, 105. 

Pickett's charge, 384. 

Pierce, Franklin, elected President, 
314; administration, 315-320; 
biography, 315. 



Pike, Zebulon M., 240. 

Pilgrims, the, 07-71. 

Pinckney, Charles, 212. 

PinckneV, Charles ('., 232. 234, 
241. 

Pine-tree shilling, 84. 

I'hiia (pen'tii). the. 10. 

Piracy, 105, 110, 238. 

Pitcairn (pit'kfirn). Major. 104. 

Pitt, William, 135, 150. 

Pizarro (pe-thiir' ro) , 20. 

Plains of Abraham. 13(). 

Plattsburg, battle of. 254. 

Plymouth (plim' nth), 08-71. 

Plymouth Company, 51, 70, 71. 

Po ca lion' tas. 54, 57, 58, 50. 

Political parties, rise of, 224. 

Po' lo, Miir' co, 0. 

Pon' ti ac's Conspiracy, 152, 153. 

Population, in 1700,' 60, 75, 01, 
110, 110, 123; in 17()3, 137. 138, 
130, 140: in 1820, 203; in 1840, 
284; in 1860, 323; since 18(55, 
465; westward movement of cen- 
ters of, 4()4. 

Port Royal ( S. ( !. ) set tied, 32, 33. 

Port Royal (Acadia), 120. 

I'orto Rico ( i)6r' to re'ko), 451, 
452, 454. 

Portugal, in fifteenth century, 5, 
11, 14, 20, 25, 26; trade with, 
74, 91, 143. 

Post, the, in the colonies, 146; en- 
velopes for, 288 : stamps for, 327. 

Pow ha tan', 54. 

President, the, 247. 

Presidential succession, order of, 
435. 

Prevost (pivvo'). General, 101, 
254. 

Princeton, battle of, 170. 

Princeton College, 140. 

Privateers in Revolution, 102; in 
War of 1812, 251; in War of 
Secession, 354. 

Proctor, General, 252. 

Prohibition Party. See Party. 

Pro pri' e ta ry government, 147. 

Protection. See Tarifl". 

Providence (R. I.) settled, 70. 

Pueblo (pweb' lo). 29. 

Pulas'ki, Count. 191. 



546 



INDEX 



riiritans, sect and name of, 71; 
settle Massachusetts, 71-75; 
settle Connecticut, 80; in Mary- 
land, 1)5, 96 ; punishments by, 73 ; 
persecutions by, 74, 84, 85, !)0. 

Quakers, 119; persecution of, in 
Enyland. 85, 120; in America, 
84,' 85; settlements by, 117, 119- 
122; among the Patriots, 178. 

Quebec, founded, 34; attacked, 
129, 135, 170. 

Quebec Act, 100, 189. 

Queen Anne's War, 129. 

Race troubles, 403. 

Races. See Population. 

Railroads, development of, by 
1840, 287; by 1800, 325; Union 
Pacific, 418; strikes on, 431, 
442. 

Raisin River Massacre, 252. 

Raleigh (ra'li). Sir Walter, 37- 
42. 

Randolph, Ednuuid, 223. 

Randolph, Peyton, 101. 

Rawdon, Colonel, 200. 

Reaping machine, invented, 289. 

Reconstruction, problem of, 407 ; 
theories of, 408 ; Lincoln's plan 
for, 400, 409 ; Johnson's plan 
for, 410; opposition to, 410; 
Acts, 413-415. 

Red River Expedition, the, 387. 

Regicides (rej'islds), the, 80, 85. 

"Regulators," 157. 

Reid, Whitelaw, 440. 

Religion in the colonies, 148 (see 
also under names of colonies). 

Republican Party. See Party. 

Resources, conservation of, 469. 

Restoration. See Charles II. 

Returning boards, 1870, 428. 

Revere, Paul, 163. 

Rhode Island, settled, 76, 77 ; gov- 
ernment in, 76, 82, 86, 89; not 
in Federal Convention, 211 ; rati- 
fies Constitution, 214, 226; new 
constitution and Dorr's Rebel- 
lion in, 295 ; specifies right of 
secession, 335. 

Ribault, Jean (zhiiN re bo'), 32. 



Richmond (Va.) burned by the 
British, 200 ; capital of the Con- 
federacy, 350 ; objective point of 
Federal campaigns, 350, 361, 
300; fall of, 398. 

Rio Grande (re' o grand') River, 
300. 

Rr. anoke' Island, 38-42. 

Robertson, James, 187. 

Rochambeau (ro shiiN bu'). Count, 
202. 

"Rock of Chickamauga," 381. 

Rolfe, John, 58, 59. 

Roosevelt (ro'zevelt), Theodore, 
in Spanish War, 450; becomes 
President, 455; biography, 455; 
administrations, 456-460. 

Rose'crans, General William S., 
372, 373, 381. 

Ross, General, 255. 

Rough Riders, the, 450. 

Riunsey, James, 245. 

Russia, occupies Alaska, 262 ; 
agrees to boundary lines, 299 ; 
attitude in War of Secession, 
417 ; Alaska purchased from, 417. 

Rut'gers College, 268. 

Riit' ledge, John, 161, 173, 212. 

Sackett's Harbor, battle of, 253. 
St. Augustine (a' gus ten ) , 

founded, 30, 33; siege of, 108; 

burned, 129. 
St. Clair (klar). General, 226. 
St. John's College, 268. 
St. Louis, founded, 127. 
St. Simon's Island, 108, 131. 
Salem (Mass.) witchcraft, 90. 
Salz'burg ers, 107. 
Sil mo' an Islands, 452. 
Sampson, Admiral, 449, 451. 
San Jii cin'to, battle of, 297. 
San Juan (boo tin'), 450. 
Santa Anna, General, 301, 302, 303. 
Santa Maria (siin'til miireTi), 

the, 16. 
Santiago (san te il' go), 450, 451. 
Sarah Constant, the, 52. 
Saratoga, battle of, 181. 
Savannah, founded, 107 ; captured 

by the British, 191; captured 

by Sherman, 389. 



INDEX 



547 



Saye and Sele, Lord, 77. 

Sayle, William, 103. 

"Scalawags," 420. 

Schley (sli), Commodore, 44i), 451. 

Scliuvler (ski' ler) , General Philip, 
181. 

Science, contributions to, 327, 467. 

Scott, General Winfield, 254. 

Secession, threatened by New Eng- 
land, 239, 25G; right of, de- 
clared by Hartford Convention, 
256 ; threatened by South Caro- 
lina, 278; in 1801, 333, 334; 
grounds for, 335-338. 

Sectional difl'erences, growth of, 
249, 266. 

Seminole wars, 258, 282. 

Semmes (sems). Admiral Raphael, 
358. 

Separatists, 68. 

Bcrapis (se ra' pis), the, 193. 

"Seventh-of-Mareh Sjieech." See 
Webster. 

Severn River, battle of, 96. 

Sevier (se-ver'), John, 187. 

Sewall, Arthur, 444. 

Seward, William H., 311, 417. 

Seymour, Horatio, 418. 

Shafter, General William R., 450. 

Shannon, the, 251. 

Shays's insurrection, 210. 

Shen'andoah valley, 361, 364, 
392, 393. 

Sherman Anti-Trust Law, 439, 460. 

Sherman, James S., 461. 

Sherman, Roger, 161, 212. 

Sherman Silver Act, 439; re- 
pealed, 441. 

Shi' loh, battle of, 368. 

Shipping, in the colonies, 71, 74, 
90, 91, 105, 142, 143; laws con- 
trolling, 151. 

Silver. See Currency. 

Sioux (soo) Indians, uprising, 426. 

Sitting Bull, 420. 

Slave trade, 60, 74, 91 ; controlled 
by England, 129 ; New iMigland 
monopoly of, 266 ; forbidden l)y 
Congress, 266. 

Slavery, African, introduced, GO ; 
prohibited in Georgia, 107, 108; 
in the colonies, 66, 91, 97, 104, 



116, 137, 139, 142, 143; exclud- 
ed from the Northwest Terri- 
tory, 215; Northern States abol- 
ish, 218, 219, 226, 206; effect 
(in admission of States, 267; 
abolished, 408. 

Sli-deir, John, 354. 

Sloughter, Colonel Henry, 116. 

Smith, Captain John, 53-57, 59, 
68. 

Somers, Sir George, 57. 

Sons of Liberty, 154. 

Sothel, Governor Setli, 102. 

Soto (so' to), Hernando de, 27. 

South, the, in 178i), 21(); in 1861, 
348, 349; in 1805, 403-400; in 
1910, 469. 

South Carolina, first settlement of, 
100, 103-105; oppression by gov- 
ernors, 150; tea ships at, 159; 
establishes independent govern- 
ment, 173; and nullification, 
271, 276, 277-279; repeals ordi- 
nance of 1788, 333; results of 
secession in, 342, 343; opening 
of war in, 345; readmitted, 414. 

South Carolina College, 268. 

"South Dakota, admitted, 439. 

Soutliern Company of Sweden, 112. 

Spain, in fifteenth century, 4; ex- 
plorations and settlements, 14- 
21, 23-31; colonial policy of, 30, 
445; rivalry with England, 35; 
trade with, 74; colonies in Amer- 
ica, 262, 445; war with, 445-453. 

"Specie circular," 281. 

Specie payments, resumption of, 
431. 

Speedwell, the, 68. 

Spoils system, 273, 432. 

Spotswood, Alexander, 67. 

"Squatter sovereignty," 316. 

Stamp Act, the, 153-150. 

Stan' dish. Captain Miles, 09. 

Stanton, Edward M., 410. 

Star of the M'rst, the, 342. 

'■Star-S])angl('(l I'aniier," 255. 

Stark, General .John, 181. 

"State-suicide" theory, 408. 

States' rights, theory of, 214, 271, 

Steamboat, invention of, 245. 

Steuben (stu' ben), Raron, 180, 184. 



548 



INDEX 



Stevens, Thaddeus, 409, 414; biog- 
raphy, 414. 

Stevenson. Adlai E.. 440, 455. 

Stone, Governor William, 90. 

Stony Point, 192. 

Storv. Judge, quoted, 272. 

Strikes, 430. 442, 457. 402. 

Stuart (lencral J. E. B., 30;}. ;392. 

Stuyvesant (sti' ve sant) , (gover- 
nor Peter, 112-114. 

Sullivan, General, 180. 

Sumner, Senator Charles, 408, 414 ; 
biography, 408. 

Sumter. Fort, 342, 345. 

Sut' ter, Captain, discovers gold, 
305. 

Syms (sinis), Benjamin, 145. 

Taft. William H., Governor of 
Philippines, 453; nominated for 
President, 401; biography. 401; 
administration, 401-402. 

Tariff, on interstate imports, 209 ; 
on foreign imports for revenue 
only, 224; on liquor, 225; first 
j)rotective, 257 ; increase in, 202 ; 
"of abominations," 271; law 
nullified by South Carolina. 277 : 
laws, 279; discussion, 433. 437, 
43S: INlcKinlev Bill. 439; Wil- 
s(m Bill. 442: Dinglev Bill. 454: 
Aldrich Bill, 401. 

Tarleton (tarl'tiin), Colonel, 199. 

Taxation without representation, 
112, 149. 150. 153-159. 

Taylor, General Richard, 387. 

Taylor, Zachary. in the Mexican 
War. 300, 301, 304; elected 
President, 300; administration 
of, 307-311; biography, 307; 
death of, 311. 

Tea tax, 158-100. 

Tecumseh (tekum'se). 247, 252. 

Telegraph, invented, 288; wire- 
less, 407. 

Telephone, invented, 400. 

Tennessee, first settlements in, 
187; admitted, 230; in the War 
of Secession, 300-373, 380-382, 
409 (note) ; antl reconstruction, 
409; readmitted, 413. 

Ten' ure-of-office Act; 413, 



Territorial expansion, 452. 

Texas, reached by La Salle, 120; 
Republic of, 297; annexation 
of, 297 ; effects of annexation 
of, 298, 300; war in, 300; not 
re]))-esentcd at Montgomery Con- 
vention, 338; not represented in 
Congress, 410; readinitted. 415. 

Thames (temz) River, battle of, 
252. 

Thanksgiving feast, the first, 09. 

Thirteenth Amendment, 408. 

Thomas, General G. H.. 380-382. 

Thur'man. Allen G., 438. 

Ticonderoga (ti kon der o' ga) Fort, 
106. 169. 180. 

Tilden, 427-429; biography, 427. 

Tippecanoe (tip pe ksi noo') . battle 
of, 248, 251, 283. 

Tobacco, discovered, 38; industry, 
59, 60, 97, 139, 142, 144. 

Toleration Act. 94. 

Tomo-chi-chi, 107. 

Tories, 103. 

Toscanelli (tos ka-nel' le) . 12, 13.25. 

Town system, 72, 115, 147. 148. 

Towns'hend Acts, the, 156, 158. 

Townshend. Charles, 150. 

Trade, routes to the East, 8. See 
also Conmierce. 

Travel, in the colonies, 144; in 
1820, 204; in 1840, 284-288; in 
1800, 324-320; since 1805, 467. 

Treaty, of Utrecht (fi'-trekt), 129; 
of "1748, 131; of Paris (1703). 
137: of 1783, 203; Jay's, with 
England. 228, 232; of Ghent 
(gent), 256: Webster-Ashl)ur- 
ton, 295; settling the Oregon 
boundary, 300 ; of Guadalupe- 
Hidalgo, 304; with Japan, 310; 
of Paris (1898), 452; with Re- 
public of Panama, 457. 

Trent affair, the, 354. 

Trenton, battle of, 177. 

Trip'oli, 238. 

Troup ( troop ) , Governor, 270. 

Trusts, 439, 470. 

Try' on, Governor, 157, 187. 

Turkey, interference with civiliza- 
tion, 5, 9. 

Turner, Nat, insvurection of, 275, 



I 



INDEX 



Tuscaroras ( tiis ka roi' as ) , 

44, 102. 
Tweed Ring, the, 427. 
Tyler, John, nominated for 
'President, 283; President, 
299; biography, 294. 
Typewriter invented, 4(17. 



1Ji( 



Vice 
294- 



the. 



"Underground Railroads 
313. 

''l^nion League," the, 420. 

United i^tates, the, 250. 

Utah (fi'ta or u'ta). Mormons 
move to, 29G; organized as Ter- 
ritory, 308; slavery optional in, 
316; "admitted, 444. 

Utrecht (u'trekt), treaty of, 129. 

Vagrancy laws, 411. 

\'alley Forge, 183, 184. 

Van Bu' len, Martin, Secretary of 
State, 273; Vice President, 277; 
hiograjjhy, 281; President, 281- 
283; ren'onunated, 283. 298. 

Van Rensselaer (van reu'selcr), 
General, 249. 

Ven' e /ue la, 443. 

Vera Cruz (va' ril kr(V)s), 302. 

Vermont, 210, 220. 

Verrazano (ver rat sii' no), 31. 

\'es pu' ci us, A mer' i cus, 22-24. 

^'incennes (vin-senz'), 189, 190. 

Vln' land, 0, 7. 

Virginia, named, 38; colonized, 
52-67; "Old Dominion," 64; 
government in, 53, 55, 56, 58, 
60-65, 148; industry in, 59, 60, 
67; life in, 66, 67; land claims 
of. 131, 190; in the French and 
Indian War, 132-134; opposes 
govei'iiors, 150; denounces the 
Stamp Act, 155; moves to de- 
clare independence, 174; war 
in, 200; surrenders western 
lands, 207, 208; calls Annapolis 
convention, 211; reserves right 
of secession, 335 ; tries to save 
the Union, 341; secedes, 350; 
readmitted, 415. 

Virginia and Kentucky Resolu- 
tions, 233. 

Virginia Company, the, 51. 



\ii 



, University of, 268. 
/ IIS, the affair of 



549 



the, 



1 /'/■ ijiii 

426. 
Voyage of the fleet, 460. 

Wake Island, 452. 

Warren, General, 168. 

Washington (City) made the Na- 
tional Capital, 225, 234 ; burned 
by the British, 255. 

\Vashington College, 268. 

Washington, Fort, 176. 

Washington, George, boyhood, 
132; in service of Virginia, 132; 
as commander of Continental 
army, 167-170, 179, 183, 184, 
204, 205; campaigns of, 173, 
175-177, 179, 180, 182-186, 190, 
191, 197, 202; circular letter 
to governors, 210; president of 
Federal Convention, 212; elected 
President, 221; administrations, 
221-231; I)iograi)hy, 221. 

Washington, Mary, 132. 

Washington Monument, 433. 

Washington (State) admitted, 
439. 

\Vasi>, the, 250. 

Watauga 'wjita'gii) Settlements, 
the, 187, 197." 

Watson, Thomas E., 445. 

Wayne, Anthony, 192, 200, 226. 

Weaver, James B., 440. 

Webster, Daniel, in debate with 
Hayne, 276; biography, 276; 
negotiates treaty, 295; delivers 
"Seventh-of-March Speech," 311; 
candidate for President, 314; 
(luoted. 272. 337. 

Webster-Ashburton Treaty, 295. 

Wesley, John, 108, 142. 

West India Company, the Dutch, 
110. 

West Indies, the, trade witli, 228. 

West Point, 198. 

Western land claims, 189, 207, 
214. 

Westward migration. 187-190, 
217, 239, 264-266, 284, .305, 317, 
325. 468. 

Whaley, PMward, 85. 

Wheeler, General Joseph, 447,450. 



550 



INDEX 



Wheeler, William A., 427. 

Whisky Rebellion, 230. 

White, Governor John, 39, 40; 

drawings by, 40, 48. 
Whitefield (w'hitfeld), George, 108. 
W^hitnian, Marcus, 296. 
Whitney, Eli, 229. 
William III and Mary, 88, 89, 97, 

lie. 

William and Mary, College of, 

founded, 07. 
Williams College, 268. 
Williams, Roger, 73, 74, 75-77. 
Wilmington (Del.), 112, 122. 
Wil' mot Proviso, 306. 
Wilson, Henry, 423. 
Wilson Bill, 442. 
Winchester, General, 251. 
Winder, General, 255. 
Wingfield, Edward Maria, 54, 55. 
Winthrop, John, 72. 



Winthrop, John, Jr., 77. 

Wirt, William, 277. 

Witchcraft, 89. 

Wolfe, General James, 135-137. 

Wood, General Leonard, 450. 

Woodford, General, 171. 

Wright, Luke E., 453. 

Writ of habeas corpus, 375, 422. 

Writs of Assistance, 151. 

Wyoming admitted, 439. 

Wyoming Valley massacre, 186. 



Yale College, 146. 
Yamacraw Indians, 107. 
Yeamans, Governor, 103. 
Yeardley (yerd' li), Governor 

George, 60. 
York (Canada), 253. 
Yorktown, in the Revolution, 202, 

203, 204; in 1812, 360. 



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